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Basic Statistics

KNES 510 Research Methods in Kinesiology

How Software is Used in Statistics

Types of software for statistics


Minitab Statistical Analysis system (SAS) Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS)

Predictive Analytics Software (PASW)

Why not Microsoft Excel? http://www.youtube.com/

Why We Need Statistics

Statistics is an objective way of interpreting a collection of observations Types of statistics

Descriptive techniques
Central tendency Variability

Correlational techniques Differences within or between groups

Ways to Select a Sample


Random sampling: tables of random numbers Stratified random sampling Systematic sampling Random assignment Justifying post hoc explanations How good does the sample have to be? Good enough for our purposes!

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics are used to summarize or condense a group of scores They include measures of central tendency and measures of variability

Humans Mean=100 SD=15

Descriptive Techniques

Central tendency scores


Mean: average Median: midpoint Mode: most frequent

Variability scores
Standard deviation Variance Range of scores

Central Tendency

Measures of central tendency describe the average or common score of a group of scores Common measures of central tendency include the mean, median, and mode

Mean

The mean is the arithmetic average of the scores The calculation of the mean considers both the number of scores and their value The formula for the mean of the variable X is:

X M n
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Mean

Six men with high serum cholesterol participated in a study to examine the effects of diet on cholesterol At the beginning of the study, their serum cholesterol levels (mg/dL) were: 366, 327, 274, 292, 274, 230 Determine the mean

Mean
366 327 274 292 274 230 M 6 1,763 M 6 M 293.83

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Calculating the Mean Using SPSS

Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Frequencies command may be used to determine the mean (you will need to select the Statistics button to choose the Mean

Statistics Cholesterol N Valid Missing Mean

6 0 293.83
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Median

The median is the middle point in an ordered distribution at which an equal number of scores lie on each side of it It is also known as the 50th percentile (P50), or 2nd quartile (Q2)

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Median

The position of the median (Mdn) can be calculated as follows:

n 1 Mdn 2

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Median

Example: Calculate the median for the following measurements for height: 71, 73, 74, 75, 72

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Median

Step One: Place the scores in order from lowest to highest. 71, 72, 73, 74, 75 Step Two: Calculate the position of the median using the following formula:
n 1 Mdn 2 5 1 Mdn 3rd score 2
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Median

Step Three: Determine the value of the median by counting from either the highest or the lowest score until the desired score is reached (in this case the 3rd score)

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Median

Suppose that in our previous distribution we had a sixth score as follows: 71, 72, 73, 74, 74, 75 What are the position and value of the median?

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Median

Consider the following example: Nine people each perform 40 sit-ups, and one does 1,000 The median score for the group is 40, and the mean (arithmetic average) is 136 The median would still be 40 even if the highest score were 2,000 instead of 40

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The Median is Unaffected by Extreme Scores


Statistics Sit-Ups N Mean Median Valid Missing 10 0 136.00 40.00

Statistics Sit-Ups N Mean Median Valid Missing

10 0 236.00 40.00

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Mode

The mode is the most frequently occurring score Which of the following scores is the mode? 3, 7, 3, 9, 9, 3, 5, 1, 8, 5 Similarly, for another data set (2, 4, 9, 6, 4, 6, 6, 2, 8, 2), there are two modes; What are they? What is the mode for 7, 7, 6, 6, 5, 5, 4 and 4

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Mode

A distribution with a single mode is said to be unimodal A distribution with more than one mode is said to be bimodal, trimodal, etc., or in general, multimodal

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Calculating the Mode Using SPSS

Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Frequencies command may be used to calculate the mode (you will need to select the Statistics button to choose the mode, etc Note differences in the SPSS output when the distribution is unimodal, multimodal, or when there is no mode

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SPSS Output - Unimodal

Statistics Scores N Valid Missing Mode

10 0 3

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SPSS Output - Bimodal


Statistics Scores N Valid Missing Mode

10 0 2a

a. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown

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SPSS Output No Mode


Statistics Scores N Valid Missing Mode

8 0 4a

a. Multiple modes exist. The smallest value is shown

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Variability

Measures of variability describe the extent of similarity or difference in a set of scores These measures include the range, standard deviation, and variance

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Standard Deviation (SD)

Standard Deviation a measure of the variability, or spread, of a set of scores around the mean Intuitively, the sum of the differences between each score and the mean (known as deviation scores) appears to be a good approach for measuring variability around the mean

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SD

Symbolically, we can write this as

X M

Lets use the scores 1, 2, 6, 6, and 15, where

M 6
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SD

Now lets calculate the sum of the deviation scores:

X M
= (1-6) + (2-6) + (6-6) + (6-6) + (15-6) = (-5) + (-4) + (0) + (0) + (9) = = -9 + 9 = 0

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SD

We can avoid this problem (deviation scores sum to 0) by squaring each deviation score before summing them This would be written symbolically as

X M

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SD

Substituting our X scores again, = (1-6)2 + (2-6)2 + (6-6)2 + (6-6)2 + (15-6)2 = (-5)2 + (-4)2 + (0)2 + (0)2 + (9)2 = 25 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 81 = 122

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SD

We then divide this value by n-1 to arrive at the mean squared deviation 122/4 = 30.5 We then take the square root of this value to bring the units back to the raw score units
30 .5 5.52
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Example calculation of variance and standard deviation on strength scores.

Subj

Score (x)

Deviation

(x)2

X 1740 193 .3 X=
n 9
( x X )2 11774.01 s2 147175 . n 1 8

1
2 3 4

216
144 183 138

22.7
-49.3 -10.3 -55.3

515.29
2430.49 106.09 3058.09

5
6 7 8 9

212
180 200 264 203 =1740

18.7
-13.3 6.7 70.7 9.7 =0

349.69
176.89 44.89 4998.49 94.09 =11774.01

( x X )2 s 38.4 n 1

Calculating the SD Using SPSS

Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Frequencies command may be used to determine the standard deviation (you will need to select the Statistics button to choose the Std. deviation

Statistics Scores N Std. Deviation Valid Missing

5 0 5.523

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Variance

The variance is the square of the standard deviation It is used most commonly with more advanced statistical procedures such as regression analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the determination of the reliability of a test

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Variance

The variance is also known as the mean square (MS)

X M s n 1
2

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Range

The range is equal to the high score minus the low score in a distribution It is considered an unstable measure of variability, and can change drastically if extreme scores are introduced to the distribution

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Range

As a result of gas analysis in a respirometer, an investigator obtains the following four readings of oxygen percentages: 14.9, 10.8, 12.3, and 23.3 What is the range?

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Calculating the Range Using SPSS

Analyze -> Descriptive Statistics -> Frequencies command may be used to calculate the range (you will need to select the Statistics button to choose Minimum, Maximum, and Range

Statistics Oxygen_Content N Valid Missing Range Minimum Maximum

4 0 12.5 10.8 23.3


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Example of Descriptive Statistics

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Confidence Intervals

Provide an expected upper and lower limit for a statistic at a specified probability level (usually 95% or 99%) CI is dependent upon the sample size, homogeneity of values within the sample and the level of confidence selected by the researcher

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Confidence Interval, contd


For example, a sample mean is an estimate of the population mean A confidence interval provides a band within which the population mean is likely to fall CI = mean (standard error confidence level) The standard error (sM) is the variability of the sampling distribution of the statistic

sM s / n
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Calculating a CI

Example: n = 30, M = 40, s = 8 CI = 40 (1.46 2.045) CI = 40 2.99 = 37.01 to 42.99 The value 1.46 came from the following formula: sM 8 / 30

The value 2.045 came from table A.5 (next slide)


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Correlation

Correlation indicates the extent to which two variables are related or associated-that is, the extent to which the direction and size of deviations from the mean in one variable are related to the direction and size of deviations from the mean in another variable

Z r

ZY
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Example of Correlations

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Categories of Statistical Tests

Parametric
Normal distribution Equal variances Independent observations

Nonparametric (distribution free)

Distribution is not normal

Normal curve
Skewness Kurtosis

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Normal Curve

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Skewness

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Kurtosis

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Statistics

What statistical techniques tell us


Reliability (significance) of effect Strength of the relationship (meaningfulness)

Types of statistical techniques


Relationships among variability Differences among groups

Cause and effect: Correlation is no proof of causation

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Next Class

Chapter 7 Abstract

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