Oscillators

Electronic Engineering
University of Wales Newport 2009 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 License.
The following presentation is a part of the level 5 module -- Electronic Engineering. This resources is a part of the
2009/2010 Engineering (foundation degree, BEng and HN) courses from University of Wales Newport (course codes
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st
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Contents
Oscillator Circuits
Wien Bridge Oscillator
R. C. Phase Shift Oscillator.
Tuned Collector L C Oscillator.
Generalised Oscillator Circuit
Colpitts Oscillator
Hartley Oscillator
Crystal Oscillator
Crystal Modelling
Credits

In addition to the resource below, there are supporting documents which should be used in combination with this
resource. Please see:
Clayton G, 2000, Operational Amplifiers 4th Ed, Newnes
James M, 2004, Higher Electronics, Newnes
Oscillators
Oscillator Circuits
An amplifier will become unstable if it has positive
feedback applied to it
See below
Vout
A
B
A is the gain of the amplifier and B is the
proportion of the output fed back to the input.
Oscillators
A will amplify a signal on the input and then a proportion
of the amplified signal will be fed back. If this is large
enough to replace the original signal the system keeps
generating an output. There are a few rules that
determine the nature of the output.
These are stated in the Barkhausen Criterion.
It states:
For Sinusoidal Oscillation to occur at a single
frequency we must have:

1. A loop gain of unity (A x B = 1)
2. A loop phase shift of zero (A + B = 0 or 360)
3. Condition 1 or 2 to be true only at a single frequency.

We will examine a range of sinusoidal oscillators.
Oscillators
Wien Bridge Oscillator
This uses a feedback network of the following form:
Note the resistors have the same value as do the
capacitors.
R
R
C
C
Z
S

Z
P

Vout
Vin
As the input frequency is varied the output will have a
different gain and phase relationship with the input. At
one frequency the input and output will be in phase.
C j
CR j
C j
R Z
S
e
e
e
1 1 +
= + =
1
1
1
+
=
+

=
CR j
R
C j
R
C j
R
Z
P
e
e
e
C j
CR j
CR j
R
CR j
R
Vin
Z Z
Z
Vin Vout
S P
P
e
e
e
e
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
=
+
=
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ +
+
+
=
+
+
+
+
= =
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
C j
CR j
CR j
R
CR j
R
Vin
Vout
Gain
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
e
2 2
3 1 1 ) ( ) ( CR CR j
CR j
CR j CR j
CR j
Gain
e e
e
e e
e
+
=
+ +
=
Oscillators
CR j CR
CR j
CR CR j
CR j
Gain
e e
e
e e
e
3 1 3 1
2 2
+
=
+
=
) ( ) (
2 2 2
2 3
2 2 2
2
3 1
3
3 1
3 1
) ( ) ) ( (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ) ( (
) ) ( (
CR CR
CR CR j CR j
CR CR
CR j CR CR j
Gain
e e
e e e
e e
e e e
+
+
=
+

=
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
2
3 1
1
3 1
3
) ( ) ) ( (
) ) ( (
) ( ) ) ( (
) (
CR CR
CR CR
j
CR CR
CR
Gain
e e
e e
e e
e
+

+
+
=
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
3 1
1 3
) ( ) ) ( (
)) ) ( ( ( ) ) ( (
CR CR
CR CR CR
Gain
e e
e e e
+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

2
2
1
3
1
) (
) ) ( (
CR
CR CR
Tan Phase
e
e e
Oscillators
Example R = 10kO and C = 10nF
Frequency Gain Phase
900 0.3093889 2.34789
1000 0.3173753 2.864766
1100 0.3232355 3.289809
1200 0.3274285 3.527987
1300 0.3303008 3.459755
1400 0.3321152 2.938197
1500 0.3330734 1.785935
1600 0.3333313 -0.20661
1700 0.3330114 -3.27647
1800 0.3322112 -7.6651
1900 0.331009 -13.5567
2000 0.3294684 -20.9608
Gain curve Phase curve
1.59kHz
0.333
Oscillators
From the graph:
Zero degrees phase shift occurs at 1.59kHz
The gain at this point equals approximately 0.333
Can we determine this from the equations?


For this to equal 0 then:
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

2
2
1
3
1
) (
) ) ( (
CR
CR CR
Tan Phase
e
e e
0 1
2
= ) ( CR e
1
2
= ) ( CR e
1 = CR e
CR
1
= e
kHz
nF k CR
f 591 1
10 10 2
1
2
1
. =
O
= =
t t
Gain at this frequency:


But
Which leaves us with:



To use this to produce an oscillator we need an
amplifier with the following characteristics:
1. Gain = 3 (to give loop gain of unity)
2. Phase shift of 0 (to give a loop phase shift of zero)

2 2 2
2 2 2 2
3 1
1 3
) ( ) ) ( (
)) ) ( ( ( ) ) ( (
CR CR
CR CR CR
Gain
e e
e e e
+
+
=
0 1
2
= ) ( CR e
3
1
9
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2 2
= = = =
) (
) (
) (
) ) ( (
CR
CR
CR
CR
Gain
e
e
e
e
Oscillators
R
2

R
1

R
R
C
C
Vout
Feedback
Amplifier
3
2
1
1 = + =
R
R
Gain
2 2 1 R R =
If the gain is
too large the
sine wave will
clip at the
supply rails
and if it is too
small it will
not oscillate
at all.
Wien Bridge Oscillator
Oscillators
R. C. Phase Shift Oscillator.
As we are aware, an R C network will alter the amount of
signal it passes as the frequency varies. It also
introduces different amounts of phase shift.
R
C
V
IN V
OUT
The maximum amount
of phase shift available
from a single R C
combination is 90.
If we have three such
combinations with the
same resistors and
capacitors we will have
up to 270 of phase
shift.
Oscillators
V
OUT
R
C
R
C
R
C
V
IN
V
1
V
2
To derive a relationship between input and output use
Nodal Analysis.

@ V
OUT

R
V
C j V V
OUT
OUT
= e ) (
2
) ( ) (
CR j
CR j
V
CR j
V V
OUT OUT
e
e
e
1 1
1
2
+
= + =
@ V
2
C j V V
R
V
C j V V
OUT
e e + = ) ( ) (
2
2
2 1
OUT
V V
CR j
V
V + =
2
2
1
2
e
but ) (
CR j
CR j
V V
OUT
e
e 1
2
+
=
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
+
+
= 1
1
2
1
2
1
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
V V
OUT
e
e
e
e
Oscillators
@V
1
C j V V
R
V
C j V V
IN
e e + = ) ( ) (
2 1
1
1
2 1
1
2 V V
CR j
V
V
IN
+ =
e
but
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
+
+
= 1
1
2
1
2
1
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
V V
OUT
e
e
e
e
) (
CR j
CR j
V V
OUT
e
e 1
2
+
=
( ) ( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
=
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
V V
OUT IN
e
e
e
e
e
e
e e
e
e
e 1
1
1
2
1
2
1 1
2
1
2 2 3
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
+
+
+
+
= 2
2 3 4 4 1
2 3
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
V V
OUT IN
e
e
e
e
e
e
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
+
+
+
+
= 2
2 3 4 4 1
2 3
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
CR j
V V
OUT IN
e
e
e
e
e
e
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + + +
=
3
3 2 3 2
2 2 3 4 4 1
CR j
CR j CR j CR j CR j CR j CR j
V V
OUT IN
e
e e e e e e
( ) ( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + +
=
3
3 2
6 5 1
CR j
CR j CR j CR j
V V
OUT IN
e
e e e
( )
( ) ( )
3 2
3
6 5 1 CR j CR j CR j
CR j
V
V
Gain
IN
OUT
e e e
e
+ + +
= =
As the frequency is varied the gain magnitude and
phase will vary.
Oscillators
( )
( ) ( )
3 2
3
6 5 1 CR j CR j CR j
CR j
V
V
Gain
IN
OUT
e e e
e
+ + +
= =
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
3
5 6 1 CR CR j CR
CR j
Gain
e e e
e
+

=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2
2
3 2 3
5 6 1
5 6 1
CR CR CR
CR CR j CR CR j
Gain
e e e
e e e e
+

=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2
2
6 4 5 3
5 6 1
5 6
CR CR CR
CR CR CR j CR j
Gain
e e e
e e e e
+
+ +
=
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2
2
3 5
2
3
2
2
4 6
5 6 1
6
5 6 1
5
CR CR CR
CR CR
j
CR CR CR
CR CR
Gain
e e e
e e
e e e
e e
+

+
+

=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2
2
2
3 5
2
4 6
5 6 1
6 5
CR CR CR
CR CR CR CR
Gain
e e e
e e e e
+
+
=
Oscillators
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

4 6
3 5
1
5
6
CR CR
CR CR
Tan Phase
e e
e e
C= 10 nF and R = 10kO
Range 100 Hz to 1600 Hz
Frequency Gain Phase
100 0.00024187 -107.824
200 0.00180268 -124.679
300 0.00547793 -139.942
400 0.01144164 -153.412
500 0.01946552 -165.165
600 0.02916192 -175.403
700 0.04013019 -184.346
800 0.05201965 -192.201
900 0.06454692 -199.142
1000 0.07749321 -205.315
1100 0.09069431 -210.839
1200 0.10402935 -215.813
1300 0.11741055 -220.316
1400 0.13077482 -224.417
1500 0.14407717 -228.17
1600 0.15728573 -231.621
~650Hz
Gain curve
Phase curve
Gain = ~0.035
( ) ( )
3 5
6 CR CR e e =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

4 6
3 5
1
5
6
CR CR
CR CR
Tan Phase
e e
e e
( ) 1 6
2
= CR e
From the graph:
-180 degrees phase shift occurs at 650Hz
The gain at this point equals approximately 0.035
Can we determine this from the equations?
For this to equal 0 (-180)
2 2
2
6
1
R C
= e
CR 6
1
= e
Hz
nF k RC
f 7 649
10 10 2 6
1
2 6
1
. =
O
=

=
t t
Oscillators
Now the gain use:
6
1
= CR e
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
3
2
2
2
3 5
2
4 6
5 6 1
6 5
CR CR CR
CR CR CR CR
Gain
e e e
e e e e
+
+
=
2 2
2
2
6 6
1
6
5
6
6
1
6 6
1
6 36
6
36
5
216
1
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|

= Gain
0345 0
29
1
216
29
216
29
6 6
29
216
29
2 2
2
. = = =
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
To use this to produce an oscillator we need an amplifier with
the following characteristics:
1. Gain = 29 (to give loop gain of unity)
2. Phase shift of 180 (to give a loop phase shift of zero (360))
Oscillators
R
R R
C
C
C
Rin
Rf
Vout
Amplifier
Feedback
R. C. Phase shift Oscillator
The values of Rin and Rf must be
selected so that the gain of the
amplifier equals twenty nine.
Rin
Rf
Gain

= = 29
Rin Rf 29 =
Oscillators
Tuned Collector L C Oscillator.
This is a development of the four-resistor biased single
stage transistor amplifier:
From equivalent circuit analysis it can be shown that the
gain of the amplifier depends (for a limited range) on the
value of the collector resistor. If this is replaced by a
tuned L C parallel network then we will have a gain which is
dependent on frequency.
C
L
R
The impedance of this network can
be determined in the following way:
C L
X X R Z // ) ( + =
1
1
1
2
+
+
=
+ +
+
=
LC CR j
L j R
C j
L j R
C j
L j R
Z
e e
e
e
e
e
e
) (
) (
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
CR LC
CR j LC L j R
CR j LC
L j R
Z
e e
e e e
e e
e
+
+
=
+
+
=
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 2 3 2 2
1 CR LC
LCR C L j L j CR j LCR R
Z
e e
e e e e e
+
+ +
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 3 2
2
2
2
1 1 CR LC
C L CR L
j
CR LC
R
Z
e e
e e e
e e +

+
+
=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2 3 2
2
2
2
1 1 CR LC
C L CR L
j
CR LC
R
Z
e e
e e e
e e +

+
+
=
( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
2 3 2 2
1 CR LC
C L CR L R
Z
e e
e e e
+
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

R
C L CR L
Tan Phase
2 3 2
1
e e e
Example
L = 10 mH, R = 10 O, C = 10 nF.
Plot the value of Z over the range:
Oscillators
Frequency Impendance Phase
12000 1747.19495 88.2391
12500 2049.5822 88.09622
13000 2453.70559 87.89268
13500 3022.7584 87.5925
14000 3885.71647 87.12191
14500 5352.88937 86.30287
15000 8405.51864 84.57067
15500 18571.4156 78.7095
16000 68655.401 -47.2146
16500 13729.3845 -82.6617
17000 7558.08851 -86.202
17500 5253.32655 -87.5099
18000 4049.04035 -88.1861
18500 3308.55693 -88.597
19000 2806.81681 -88.8716
19500 2444.08824 -89.0672
20000 2169.40337 -89.2129
15.9 kHz
Oscillators
Zero phase shift occurs at about 15.9 kHz and this
approximately coincides with the peak in the gain (within
the limits of our results)
Can we determine this from the equations?
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

R
C L CR L
Tan Phase
2 3 2
1
e e e
This must equal 0 so:
0
2 3 2
= C L CR L e e e C L CR L
2 3 2
e e e =
C L CR L
2 2 2
e =
2
2
2
2
2
1
L
R
LC C L
CR L
=

= e
kHz
L
R
LC
f
L
R
LC
91 15
1
2
1 1
2
2
2
2
. = = =
t
e
Impedance at this frequency:
Oscillators
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 3 2 2
1 1 CR LC
R
CR LC
C L CR L R
Z
e e e e
e e e
+
=
+
+
=
Note:
6
2
2
10
2
2
10 1 10 1
1 1
= = =
L
R
and
LC L
R
LC
e
so
LC
1
~ e
O = = = k
CR
L
LC
R C
R
Z 100
2 2
If we use this parallel network instead of the
collector resistor we will have an amplifier whose
gain is frequency dependent.
Oscillators
Amplifier Characteristic
12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 20000
Frequency
G
a
i
n
G
MAX

F
R
The peak gain G
MAX
occurs at the resonant frequency F
R
.
We now need to introduce feedback and this is done by
converting the inductor of the parallel L C combination into
a transformer and applying the feedback signal to the
base. An extra capacitor is required to connect the other
side of the transformer to ground for ac signals.
Amplifier
Feedback
Oscillators
When the dc bias is set up the new capacitor has no effect
and the new inductor acts like a short circuit.
When operating a fraction of the output is generated across
the new inductor and this is effectively between the base and
ground.
The amount of feedback is determined by the turns ratio TR
of the transformer.
If we arrange for the turns ratio of the transformer to have a
value given by:
MAX
R
G
T
1
=
Then we will have a Loop Gain of unity only at the peak gain and
therefore this part of the criterion is met only at a single
frequency. The Loop Phase Shift can be kept at 0 for all
frequencies. Oscillation frequency is given by:
LC
Frequency
t 2
1
=
Oscillators
Generalised Oscillator Circuit
Z
2
Z
3

Z
1

-A
The circuit shows an
inverting amplifier with
three complex components
connected to it.

(These components could be
inductors or capacitors)
Oscillators
This can be redrawn in the following way
Note Z
1
= jX
1
etc.
R
OUT
is the output resistance of the amplifier
jX
1

jX
2

jX
3

R
OUT

Vin
AVin
-

+
~
Oscillators
The load on the output Z
LOAD
of the amplifier is given by
) //(
2 1 3
jX jX jX Z
LOAD
+ =
3 2 1
2 1 3
) (
jX jX jX
jX jX jX
Z
LOAD
+ +
+
=
This allows us to determine the gain of the amplifier.
3 2 1
2 1 3
3 2 1
2 1 3
) (
) (
jX jX jX
jX jX jX
R
jX jX jX
jX jX jX
A
Z R
Z A
Gain
OUT
LOAD OUT
LOAD
+ +
+
+
+ +
+

=
+

=
) ( ) (
) (
2 1 3 3 2 1
2 1 3
jX jX jX jX jX jX R
jX jX jX A
Gain
OUT
+ + + +
+
=
Oscillators
Using j x j = -1
) ( ) (
) (
2 1 3 3 2 1
2 1 3
X X X X X X jR
X X X A
Gain
OUT
+ + +
+
=
The feedback ratio for the network involves X1 and X2.
2 1
2
jX jX
jX
Vout Vin
+
=
2 1
2
X X
X
Vout
Vin
Feedback
+
= =
The Loop Gain LG for the circuit is equal to Gain x Feedback
2 1
2
2 1 3 3 2 1
2 1 3
) ( ) (
) (
X X
X
X X X X X X jR
X X X A
LG
OUT
+

+ + +
+
=
) ( ) (
2 1 3 3 2 1
2 3
X X X X X X jR
X X A
LG
OUT
+ + +

=
For this to be an oscillator the equation must have no j
component and therefore:
0
3 2 1
= + + X X X
This means that for the above equation to be true the
three components cannot be the same type (e.g. three
capacitors) as this will produce a positive or negative
result there must be a mix e.g. two inductors and
one capacitor.
The Loop Gain equation is therefore:
3
2
2 1
2
2 1 3
2 3
) ( X
X A
X X
X A
X X X
X X A
LG

=
+

=
+

=
Oscillators
As this value must be positive it means that X2 and X3
must be of the same sign they must be either
capacitors or inductors.
From this general design we can generate two
oscillators:

1. X1 = Inductor X2 = Capacitor X3 = Capacitor
2. X1 = Capacitor X2 = Inductor X3 = Inductor
Oscillators
Colpitts Oscillator
0
3 2
1
=
C
j
C
j
L j
e e
e
C
2
C
3

L
1

-A
Oscillation Frequency.
0
3 2 1
= + + X X X
0
1 1
3 2
1
= + +
C j C j
L j
e e
e
3 2
3 2
3 2
1
2
1 1
C C
C C
C C
L
+
= + = e
3 2 1
3 2
2
C C L
C C +
= e
3 2 1
3 2
C C L
C C +
= e
3 2 1
3 2
2
1
C C L
C C
f
+
=
t
Oscillators
Amplifier Gain
1
3
2
=

=
X
X A
LG
3
2
2
3
2
3
1
1
C
C
C j
C j
X
X
A = = =
e
e
Example
100pF
470pF
L
1

-A
If we need a 25kHz
oscillator,
What value of L
1
do
we require and what
should the gain of
the amplifier equal?
Oscillators
Hartley Oscillator
0
3 2
1
= + + L j L j
C
j
e e
e
L
2

L
3

C
1

-A
Oscillation Frequency.
0
3 2 1
= + + X X X
0
1
3 2
1
= + + L j L j
C j
e e
e
1
3 2
2
1
) (
C
L L = + e
) (
1
3 2 1
2
L L C +
= e
) (
1
3 2 1
L L C +
= e
) ( 2
1
3 2 1
L L C
f
+
=
t
Oscillators
Amplifier Gain
1
3
2
=

=
X
X A
LG
2
3
2
3
2
3
L
L
L j
L j
X
X
A = = =
e
e
L
2

L
3

1nF
-10
Example
Determine the values of
L
2
and L
3
if the
oscillator is to operate
at 10kHz
Oscillators
Crystal Oscillator
A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses
the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of
piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal
with a very precise frequency. This frequency is
commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz
wristwatches), to provide a stable clock signal for
digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize
frequencies for radio transmitters.
Using an amplifier and feedback, it is an especially
accurate form of an electronic oscillator. The crystal
used therein is sometimes called a "timing crystal".
On schematic diagrams a crystal is sometimes
labelled with the abbreviation XTAL.
Oscillators
Crystal Modelling
*A quartz crystal can be modelled as an electrical
network with a low impedance (series) and a high
impedance (parallel) resonance point spaced closely
together.
C
0
C
1
L
1 R
1
* The above text is taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator and is available under the
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.
Oscillators
Adding additional capacitance across a crystal will cause
the parallel resonance to shift downward. This can be
used to adjust the frequency that a crystal oscillator
oscillates at. Crystal manufacturers normally cut and
trim their crystals to have a specified resonant
frequency with a known 'load' capacitance added to
the crystal. For example, a 6pF 32kHz crystal has a
parallel resonance frequency of 32,768 Hz when a
6.0pF capacitor is placed across the crystal. Without
this capacitance, the resonance frequency is higher
than 32,768.

* The above text is taken from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_oscillator and is available under the
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.

Oscillators
Oscillators
This resource was created by the University of Wales Newport and released as an open educational resource
through the Open Engineering Resources project of the HE Academy Engineering Subject Centre. The Open
Engineering Resources project was funded by HEFCE and part of the JISC/HE Academy UKOER programme.




2009 University of Wales Newport



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