PROSES ANALISIS DATA KUALITATIF

Topics Discussed in this lecture

Data analysis

Characteristics of qualitative data Analysis during and after data collection Analytic strategies Computerized analysis
Insights into interpreting Strategies

Interpretation of results

Data Analysis

The purpose of data analysis is to bring order to the data Characteristics of qualitative data

Thick, rich descriptions Voluminous Unorganized No single way to gain understanding of phenomena Numerous ways to report data
Objective 1.1

Perspectives on analysis and interpretation

Data Analysis

Perspectives

Researchers messages are not neutral Researchers language creates reality Researcher is related to what and who is being studied Affect and cognition are inextricably linked What is understood is not neat, linear, or fixed

Data Analysis During Data Collection

Data analysis is an ongoing process throughout the entire research project

Analysis begins with the very first interaction between the researcher and the participants This is a very important perspective given the interpretive nature of the analysis and the emergent nature of qualitative research designs

Informal steps involve gathering data, examining data, comparing prior data to newer data, and developing new data to gain perspective
Objectives 3.1 and 3.2

Data Analysis After Data Collection

General guidelines and strategies but few specific rules Common problems

Premature conclusions Inexperience of the researcher Self-reinforcement of the researchers own ideas without support from the data Impulsive actions Desire to finish quickly

Most problems are resolved by spending time living with the data
Objective 3.2

Data Analysis After Data Collection

Inductive nature of data analysis

Large amount of data to analyze Progressively narrowing data into small groups of key data Multi-staged process of organizing, categorizing, synthesizing, interpreting, and writing
Objective 3.2

Data Analysis After Data Collection

Iterative process focused on

Becoming familiar with the data and identifying potential themes Examining the data in-depth to provide detailed descriptions of the setting, participants, and activities Coding and categorizing data into themes Interpreting and synthesizing data into general written conclusions
Objective 4.2

Data Analysis After Data Collection

Data management

Creating and organizing data collected during the study Purposes

Organize and check data for completeness Start the analytical and interpretive process

No meaningful analysis can be done without effective data management

Data Analysis After Data Collection

Data management (continued)

Suggestions

Write dates on all notes Sequence all notes with labels Label notes according to type Make photocopies of all notes Organize computer files into folders according to data types and stages of analysis Make backup copies of files Read through data to make sure it is legible and complete Begin to note potential themes and patterns that emerge
Objective 6.1

Data Analysis After Data Collection

Three formal steps to analyze data

Reading and memoing Describing the context and participants Classifying and interpreting

Objective 4.2

Data Analysis After Data Collection

Reading and memoing

Reading field notes, transcripts, memos, and the observers comments The purpose is to get an initial sense of the data Suggestions

Read for several hours at a time Make marginal notes of your impressions, thoughts, ideas, etc.
Objective 4.2

Data Analysis After Data Collection

Description

What is going on in the setting and among participants

Purposes

Provide a true picture of the setting and events to understand and appreciate the context Separate and group pieces of data related to different aspects of the setting, events, and participants The influence of context on participants actions and understanding
Objective 4.2

Issues

Data Analysis After Data Collection

Classifying and interpreting

The process of breaking down data into small units, determining the importance of these units, and putting pertinent units together in a general interpretive form Use of coding and classifying schemes

Topic A basic unit of information Category a classification of ideas or concepts Pattern a relationship across categories
Objective 4.2

Data Analysis Strategies

Eight strategies for starting data analysis

Identifying themes

A good place to start analyzing data Listing themes or patterns you have seen emerge from the data Reducing the data to a manageable form Guidelines

Coding data

Read through all the data and attach working labels to blocks of text Cut and paste these blocks of text to index cards to make it easier to organize the data in various ways Group the index cards together based on similar labels Re-visit each group of cards to be sure each card still fits
Objectives 6.1 and 6.3

Data Analysis Strategies

Eight strategies (continued) Asking key questions

Working through a series of questions such as those proposed by Stringer (e.g., who is centrally involved, who has resources, how do things happen, etc.) Focus on the organizations vision and mission, goals and objectives, structures, operations, problems, issues, and concerns Create a visual representation of the major influences that have affected the study
Objectives 6.1 and 6.3

Doing an organizational review

Concept mapping

Data Analysis Strategies

Eight strategies (continued)

Analyzing antecedents and consequences

Mapping causes and effects Represent findings in effective visual displays (e.g., graphs, charts, concept maps, etc.)

Displaying findings

Stating what is missing

Identify what pieces of the puzzle are still missing

Objectives 6.1 and 6.3

Computerized Data Analysis

Software is readily available to assist with data analysis

Researchers must code the data Manipulation of the data is enhanced The effectiveness of this manipulation is dependent on the researchers ideas, thoughts, hunches, etc.

There is considerable debate as to whether data should be analyzed by hand or computer

Objectives 6.4 and 6.5

Interpretation

The purpose of the interpretation of qualitative analyses of data

Attempts to understand the meaning of the findings

Larger conceptual ideas Consistent themes Relationships to theory Analysis involves making sense of what is in the data Interpretation involves making sense of what the data mean
Objectives 5.1 and 7.1

Differentiating analysis and interpretation

Interpretation

Insights into interpretation

Interpretation is reflective, integrative, and explanatory

Need to understand ones own data to describe it Integrated into report writing

Based heavily on connection, common aspects, and linkages among data, categories, and patterns Interpretation makes explicit the conceptual basis of the categories and patterns
Objective 7.1

Interpretation

Four guiding questions

What is important in the data? Why is it important? What can be learned from it? So what?

Objective 7.2

Interpretation

Six strategies

Extend the analysis

Note implications that might be drawn

Connect findings with personal experiences

The researcher knows the situation better than anyone else and can justify using his or her experiences and perspective
Seek the insights from a trusted colleague Uncover external sources that support the findings
Objective 7.3

Seek advice from a critical friend

Contextualize findings in the literature

Interpretation

Six strategies (continued)

Turn to theory

Provides a way to link the findings to broader issues Allows the researcher to search for increasing levels of abstraction Provides a rationale for the work Dont offer an interpretation with which you are not comfortable Suggest what needs to be done
Objective 7.3

Know when to say, When!

Credibility Issues

Six questions to help researchers check the quality of their data

Are the data based on your own observations or hearsay? Is there corroboration by others of your observations? In what circumstances was an observation made or reported?
Objective 7.4

Credibility Issues

Six questions (continued)

How reliable are those providing data? What motivations might have influenced a participants report? What biases might have influenced how an observation was made or reported?
Objective 7.4

Slides seterusnya berkaitan cara menjalankan analisis data kualitatif

Kaedah ini merujuk kepada Miles &

Huberman (1994)
Rujukan Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Miles & Huberman (1982) telah menyarankan struktur berikut sebagai panduan proses analisis data kualitatif: Selecting Data, Reading Data, Presenting Data, Improving data and drawing conclusions, Collecting Data, Further research activities
(Sumber: Altrichter, Posch, & Somekh, 1993).

Miles & Huberman (1982) telah menyarankan struktur berikut sebagai panduan proses analisis data kualitatif:

Reading Data

Collecting Data

Selecting Data

Further research activities

Presenting Data

Improving data and drawing conclusions

Langkah-langkah dalam aliran di dinamakan The Constructive Stage of Analysis / Peringkat Pembinaan.

Langkah 1(Reading data) Meneliti data-data yang diperolehi untuk mengingat kembali peristiwa & pengalaman yang berkaitan. Langkah 2(Selecting data) Menapis untuk memilih fakta yang penting. Menghimpun data mengikut kategori/ criteria. Mempermudahkan maklumat yang kompleks.

Langkah 3(Presenting data)Merumuskan data yang terpilih dalam bentuk yang mudah dipersembahkan, misalnya garis kasar atau grafik. Langkah 4(Interpreting data & drawing conclusions)Menjalinkan perhubungan antara data.Merangkakan model/teori untuk menjelaskan situasi.

Untuk menjamin kesahan (validity) kajian yang dijalankan, langkah-langkah tersebut hendaklah diiringi atau disusuli dengan The Critical Stage of Analysis / Peringkat Kritis. Sehubungan itu, dua aktiviti utama ialah: Menyemak kesahan sebarang bukti yang menyokong sesuatu dapatan. Mencari bukti yang tidak selaras dengan dapatan.

KAEDAH-KAEDAH ANALISIS DATA KUALITATIF

1. Analisis Kandungan (Content Analysis) Secara ringkas, kaedah ini melibatkan penyelidik Meneliti data yang diperoleh(contoh: transkrip rakaman audio sesi pengajaran & pembelajaran) dan menggariskan/menandakan perkara-perkara yang dianggap penting berhubung dengan persoalan kajian. Merujuk balik perkara-perkara yang ditandakan dan menentukan kategori yang sesuai (contoh: Penyoalan Guru, Pujian dll). Melabelkan bahagian-bahagian data dengan Nama Kategori atau Singkatan/Kodnya (Contoh: PY bagi Penyoalan, PJ bagi Pujian dsb) digunakan, pastikan koding yang lebih detail digunakan agar punca data berkenaan dapat dikenal pasti.

Contoh: PJ: TSPP3 / 2 / 18

Kategori Pujian Punca Transkrip Sesi P&P Ke-3 Muka Surat ke-2 Baris ke-18

Analisis Pola (Pattern Analysis)

Setelah mengenal pasti serta membuat pengekodan perkara-perkara penting, penyelidik membuat analisis berpandukan kepada soalansoalan berikut: Apakah pola yang dapat dilihat? Apakah kesignifikanan pola ini? Apakah kesan pola perlakuan tersebut? Sejauh manakah pola serta kesan daripadanya serasi/sepadan dengan hasrat guru? Sekiranya kesan pola berkenaan memang sepadan dengan hasrat guru, apakah teori yang dapat dirumuskan?

Analisis Dilema (Dilemma Analysis)

Meneliti data yang diperolehi (khasnya transkrip temu bual) untuk mencari kes-kes di mana sasaran kajian menghadapi dilema yang bercorak On one hand .. but, on the other hand Menuliskan satu pernyataan yang jelas tentang dilema berkenaan. Menjelajah dilema tersebut untuk memahami faktorfaktor yang menimbulkan nya, kesan serta tahap seriusnya. Mencari penyelesaian.

TEKNIK MENYEMAK DATA (TRIANGULASI DATA)

Data yang dipungut perlu mempunyai kredibiliti. Dengan demikian, data yang dipungut seboleh-bolehnya perlu disemak untuk menentukan sejauh manakah ianya boleh dipercayai. Satu kaedah yang popular yang digunakan untuk menyemak keboleh percayaan data kualitatif ialah triangulasi.

Cohen & Manion (1994: m.s. 236) dan Altrichter et al (1993: m.s. 116) telah mencadangkan beberapa jenis triangulasi yang boleh diamalkan mengikut situasi dan keperluan kajian iaitu 1. triangulasi masa, 2. triangulasi metod, 3. triangulasi sumber dan 4. triangulasi penyelidik.

1.Triangulasi Masa

Mengumpul data daripada sumber yang sama untuk satu jangka masa yang panjang (juga dikenali sebagai rekabentuk longitudinal). Contohnya, berbincang atau menemu bual seorang individu yang sama mengenai topik yang sama pada masa yang berlainan.

2.Triangulasi Metod

Menggunakan kaedah mengumpul data yang berlainan ke atas objek kajian yang sama (triangulasi antara kaedah between methods , untuk menguji kesahan). Contohnya, mengumpul maklumat mengenai aspek yang sama melalui temu bual, pemerhatian dan borang soal selidik. Menggunakan kaedah yang sama untuk situasi yang lain (triangulasi dalam kaedah within methods bermaksud mengulang satu kajian untuk menguji keboleh percayaan termasuk membuat replikasi).

3. Triangulasi Sumber

Mendapat maklumat dan pandangan daripada sumber-sumber informasi yang berlainan. Contohnya, mendapat pandangan pelajar, guru sebaya, pemerhatian sendiri, pihak pentadbir, buku rekod guru dan lain-lain lagi.

Altrichter et al (1993: m.s. 116) menggambarkan triangulasi tiga penjuru ini seperti berikut:

Perspektif pihak ketiga

Perspektif Guru

Perspektif Pelajar

4.Triangulasi Penyelidik

Menggunakan lebih daripada seorang penyelidik untuk mengumpul data.

(Sumber: Altrichter et al, 1993; Cohen & Manion, 1994)