CRUISE PERFORMANCE

Cruise Control
Many corporate and regional jets spend their days flying

shorter domestic routes. These short routes generally consist of a takeoff, climb, descent, and landing. In this case cruise planning isnt as critical. For larger jets operating on long transoceanic flights cruise control is critical and dependant on a number of factors.

Altitude Fuel load Aircraft weight Weather Buffet boundaries

Cruise Procedures
High-speed cruise: cruise at the maximum indicated airspeed or constant mach number.
Provides the quickest en-route time, but sacrifices fuel

Long-range cruise: cruise mach number is varied with altitude and weight for maximum economy.
Provides the best fuel economy for given flight conditions. Relative to lift/drag ratio for weight and speed. Thrust setting must be continually adjusted (reduced) as

efficiency. (not normally used by airlines) A variation of high-speed cruise is adopted by some operators where speed is reduced slightly to provide an additional Mmo buffer.

weight decreases throughout the flight in order to maintain optimum speed.

Range Calculations
Specific Air Range(SAR): Nautical air miles per

pound of fuel burned. (SAR increases as weight decreases)

SAR(NAM/lb)=TAS/Fuel Flow

Specific Ground Range(SGR): Nautical ground

miles per pound of fuel burned.(provides an indication of the most efficient cruising altitude taking winds into account.
SGR(NGM/lb)=GS/Fuel Flow

Example
Find the best altitude for range under these

conditions:

FL310, Track 270T, TAS 330kts, Winds

270T/30kts, Fuel Flow 1100lbs/hr FL350, Track 270T, TAS 310kts, Winds 270T/60kts, Fuel Flow 950lbs/hr

Best altitude for range is FL310

300/1100=0.27NGM/lb (FL350=0.26/lb)

Fuel Conservation
Rising fuel costs have initiated change throughout the

commercial aviation world. The higher fuel costs get, the more they affect an airlines bottom line. The price of jet fuel has doubled since 2003. American Airlines fuel bill was 5 billion dollars in 2005. By implementing fuel conservation techniques the airline saves 155 million dollars a year. All airlines have made fuel conservation practices a priority and pilots are expected to operate accordingly.

Aircraft Handling
Pilots can have a huge impact on fuel savings by

being conscious of fuel conservation methods.

Dont start the engines until you are ready and assured taxi

for takeoff. Taxi on one engine. (company policy) Adhere to company fuel conservation schedules in cruise. Resist the urge to tanker fuel. (the increased aircraft weight increases fuel consumption) Request direct routings when possible. Diligently monitor changes in wind and modify altitude accordingly. Delay descent to maximize high altitude flight.

Tanker Fuel
The importance of contingency fuel is obvious; no one

wants to run out of gas. On transoceanic flights it becomes even more critical. If the destination weather deteriorates alternate options are limited. Carrying this contingency fuel increases aircraft weight and fuel burn. It takes careful planning in order to balance safety and fuel conservation. (In most cases a strong trust in the dispatch team) The only time it makes sense to tanker extra fuel is if destination fuel prices are high enough to offset the extra fuel burn.

Mach Number
The speed of sound varies with temperature.

S=speed of sound in knots K=Kelvin (C+273) S=39Temp K The speed of sound at 15C is 39288=662kts

Mach number is the ratio of true air speed of the

Mach number =TAS/S An aircraft traveling at a TAS of 370kts when the

aircraft to the speed of sound. Mach 0.8 is 80% of the speed of sound.
temperature is 15C has a mach number of 0.56

Critical Mach Number MCRIT

Critical mach number is the flight speed at which

airflow reaches the speed of sound over any part of the airframe. The compressibility of air at high speeds causes a shock wave to form. At MCRIT a small shockwave starts to form on the upper, forward surface of the wing. As speed increases beyond MCRIT the shockwave becomes more pronounced and creates a drag rise.

Maximum Mach Operation MMO

Limiting maximum speed for flight operations. As speed increases beyond MCRIT the shockwave

grows and moves further aft. MMO is the maximum speed the aircraft can fly without encountering the dangerous flight characteristics associated with boundary layer separation. These include mach buffet, mach tuck, and dutch roll. An airspeed limitation indicator (barber pole) automatically adjusts for temperature changes. An aural warning (clacker) actuates if the speed is exceeded.

Coffin Corner
As an aircraft gains altitude; stall speeds increase

while Maximum Mach speed decreases. At high altitude the separation between these speeds narrows and defines the aircrafts maximum operating altitude for a specific weight. The buffet margin is the airspeed range between the stall buffet and the high-speed buffet. When operating with a narrow buffet margin the danger of misdiagnosing adverse flight characteristics is always present. (initiating a stall recovery when mach buffet is encountered) As aircraft weight decreases throughout the flight higher altitudes become available.

Stick Shakers and Pushers

Stick Shaker: A stall warning device installed in

large turbine powered aircraft to warn against approach to stall. The control column will literally begin to shake as the aircraft approaches the stall. Stick Pusher: Some aircraft are equipped with a device which will automatically lower the pitch of the aircraft when stall is imminent. The stick pusher will manipulate the control column or the elevator control surface depending on installation.

Altitude Selection

Choosing the optimum cruising altitude is critical for long range flights. A less than optimum altitude will result in more fuel burn. Altitude can and should be changed as aircraft weight is decreased. ATC will accommodate as well as they can in order for operators to maximize efficiency. Other things to consider when choosing a cruising altitude are: weather, turbulence, buffet boundaries. Modern airlines have sophisticated dispatch centers which compile and generate flight plans for the flight crews. This information is computer generated and very accurate. It is still the pilots responsibility to verify this planning information and make any necessary changes en-route due to other than forecast conditions. Another pilot aid on sophisticated aircraft are FMS. Flight management systems will continually recalculate optimum performance parameters as conditions change in order to maximize efficiency.

ETOPS
Extended Range Twin-Engine Operation In the past longer transoceanic trips were limited to

aircraft with more than two engines due to strict regulations imposed on twin engine aircraft. With the introduction of the 757/767 and their proven capability and reliability the governing bodies provided a certification program called ETOPS. The operator and aircraft must adhere to strict reliability and maintenance schedules in order to become ETOPS certified. An ETOPS certified operator is able to fly twin-engine aircraft on routes otherwise prohibited.

120 min and 180 min ETOPS