Populations and the environment

Habitat the place where an organism lives

Population all the individuals of one particular species

found in a ecosystem at a given time Community sum of all organisms in a ecosystem Abiotic non living Biotic living niche how the species functions in its habitat Adaption a feature an organism has that increases its chance of survival and reproduction Birth rate -> number of births per 1000 people per year death rate -> number of deaths per 1000 people per year

 Phosphorylation adding a phosphate using ATP Photophosphorylation adding a phosphate using

light Photolysis splitting of a molecule using light Hydrolysis splitting a molecule using water Decarboxylation removing carbon dioxide Degydrogenation the removal of a hydrogen Reduction gain of electrons and hydrogen, loss of oxygen Oxidation loss of electrons and hydrogen, gain of oxygen

 An ecosystem is a self supporting system of organisms

interacting with each other and their physical environment Interactions include: - Competition for resources - Feeding relationships Every species occupies a different niche, they have different eating patterns ect... If a species tries to occupy the same niche then they will compete, one will outcompete the other.

 Population size is dependent on the availability of -

resources Biotic and abiotic factors can limit population growth Main biotic factor = competition: Interspecific -> competition between different species Intraspecific -> competition between same species Main abiotic factors: CO concentration -> plant populations only Mineral ion availability -> plant populations only Light intensity -> plant population only Water availability -> both animal and plant populations Temperature -> both animal and plant populations

 biotic factors that influence population size:

-predation -> reduces the prey population -disease causing organisms ->population slowed -competition The predator prey relationship - the populations size of the predators and prey are interdependent - Increase in prey numbers means more food for predators - Predator numbers increase - Predators kill more prey, so prey population decreases - Less food for predator, so predator population decreases - Less predators to kill prey, so prey population increases - Predator population always lags behind prey population, because the predator is dependent on prey for food.

Quadrats ...... Static population Divide into grid Random coordinates Record number of species in quadrat (species frequency) & percentage cover. Transects......plant populations Lay tape across area at regular intervals take measurements Mark-release-recapture.....mobile species collect sample and mark release back into wild, allow time to disperse second sample, count number that are marked and total sample Total population size = No. Caught in 1st sample x No. caught in 2nd sample / No. marked in 2nd sample

 Assumptions when investigating populations: 1) 2)

3)
4) 5) 1.

2.

The marked sample has enough time and opportunity to mix back into population Marking doesnt effect behaviour No migration No reproduction No deaths Ethical considerations: The environment will be damaged -> so investigations need to be planned to make the littlest impact Some techniques effect animals being studied -> capturing causes stress -> need to be released quickly

 Any changes in the populations is due to changes in

the numbers being born and dying Population growth rate = birth rate death rate Most populations are restricted by limiting factors, but humans can modify their environment to allow rapid population growth Human population has been increasing because: 1. Increased quality and quantity of food 2. Improved sanitation 3. Improved medical care

 The Demographic Transition Model - Shows changes in birth, death rates and population size

Birth/death rate fluctuate at high level, no birth control, poor health Death rate falls but birth high Population rapidly grows, health care Sanitation and diet improve Birth rate falls, population increases but slower rate, use of birth control and family planning, manufacturing -> fewer children needed to work Birth falls and death stable, population stable but high. Increased demand for luxuries, career minded Births fall, population decreases, children expensive to raise

 Carries energy around a cell to where its needed

ATP synthesised from ADP and Pi, ATP synthase

catalyses the reaction ATP has specific properties that make it good for its function: 1. Energy released quickly in single step hydrolysis reaction 2. Energy released in small amounts -> suitable for cellular reactions 3. Molecule moved around easily within a cell but cant leave the cell

Process with 2 main stages, the light dependent and the light independent reactions
Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts
They are adapted to their function as the thylakoids

increase the surface area so that more light energy can be absorbed. Chlorophyll inside absorb the light energy The stroma contains enzymes, sugars and organic acids used in cellular reactions.

 The Light Dependent Stage:......thylakoid - Light energy excites electrons in the chlorophyll, releases -

electrons Electrons pass through electrons carriers via a series of oxidation and reduction reactions Energy given out in these reactions synthesises ADP + Pi into ATP = photophosphorylation Light is also used to split water molecules = photolysis Water split into electrons, hydrogen and oxygen Electrons from photolysis replace electrons lost from chlorophyll Hydrogen ions and electrons from electron carriers join to molecule NADP to form reduced NADP The oxygen from photolysis is used in respiration

 The Light Independent Stage:......stroma - CO enters the stroma and combines with ribulose

bisphosphate to form 2 molecules of glycerate 3 phosphate ATP and reduced NADP from light dependent stage are used to turn glycerate 3 phosphate into 2 molecules of triose phosphate Triose phosphate is then converted into many useful substances such as glucose Reduced NADP is recycled to NADP Ribulose bisphosphate is regenerated which requires ATP

 Population growth curves: - Show whether a population is increasing, decreasing

or stable - Steepness shows how fast its changing Survival curves: - Show percentage of individuals born in a population that are still alive at a given age. - Life expectancy is the age at which half the population is still alive Age pyramids: - Show how many males & females there is within a certain age group

 Limiting factors in Photosynthesis:

If increasing a certain factor increases the rate of photosynthesis then that is the limiting factor Light, temperature & CO are all limiting factors Optimum conditions: 1. High light intensity -> light needed to provide energy for light dependent reactions, higher intensity = more energy 2. Temperature 25.c -> enzymes control reactions, below 10.c there inactive but higher than 45.c they start to denature. Also higher temperatures cause stomata to close to reduce water loss, so CO intake reduced 3. CO at 0.4% -> CO makes up 0.o4% of gases in atmosphere, increase will cause increase in rate of photosynthesis, but too high and stomata close Farmers use this information to increase their productivity

Aerobic Respiration Glycolysis.........cytoplasm - 2 molecules of ATP used to energies reaction -> glucose split into 2 molecules of phosporylated glucose (GP) - GP converted into 2 molecules of pyruvate by a oxidation reaction - 4 molecules of ATP produced & 2 molecules of reduced NAD - Net gain of 2 ATP and 2 reduced NAD

 Link Reaction.......matrix of mitochondria - Pryruvate moves into the matrix of the mitochondrion - Pyruvate is decarboxylated -> forming CO

- NAD is reduced by collecting a hydrogen from

pyruvate, this changes pyruvate to acetate - Acetate combined with coenzyme A to from acetly conenzyme A - Net gain: 2 acetyl coenzyme A 2 CO 2 reduced NAD

 Krebs cycle......matrix of mitochondria 1. acetyl coenzyme A combines with a 4 carbon compound

to form a 6 carbon compound (citrate) 2. coenzyme A goes back to link reaction 3. 6 carbon molecule decarboxylated 4. dehydrogenation also occurs -> H+ used to produce reduced NAD 5. 5C converted to 4C molecule, Decarboxylation & dehydrogenation also occur to produce 1 reduced FAD and 2 reduced NAD 6. ATP produced Net gain: 1 ATP 1 reduced FAD 3 reduced NAD 2 CO

 The Electron Transport Chain:

Reduced NAD & FAD supply H+ ions to power hydrogen pumps in the ETC. 1. Hydrogen released from reduced NAD & FAD, the hydrogen atom splits into electrons and protons 2. Electrons combine with first proton pump, electrons are accepted and pass through proton pumps 2 and 3 3. The electron loses energy which is used to pump a H+ ion through the pumps 4. At the end of the chain the electrons combine with H+ and O to from water Synthesis of ATP 1. As the electrons pass through the pumps, the pumping of the H+ causes a hydrogen gradient 2. More H+ ions in the intermembrane space 3. This causes H+ to go though ATP synthase 4. When H+ go through it causes on molecule of ATP to be synthesised NAD = 3 ATP FAD = 2 ATP

 Anaerobic Respiration: - In the absence of oxygen the ETC cant happen because -

oxygen is the last electron acceptor This causes a build up of reduced NAD & FAD Glycolysis continues because pyruvate is converted into ethanol or lactate This regenerates NAD & FAD so glycolysis can continue Net yield of 2 ATP

 Energy cant be created or destroyed The main way energy enters the ecosystem is via

photosynthesis -> light energy is converted to a useable form of chemical energy Energy is transferred through an ecosystem through living organisms when organisms eat each other Each stage is called a trophic level Food chains/webs show how the energy is transferred Not all energy is transferred -> some lost as heat in respiration & locked in bones so released by decomposers Often the number of trophic levels doesnt exceed 5 because there is too little energy left

 The biological molecules that an organism takes in are used in 2

1.
2.

1.

2. 3. 4.

main ways: Respired to produce ATP -> used to drive biological processes Stored as biomass e.g. For growth Not all energy gets transferred to the next trophic level because: Most of the available energy is never taken in e.g. Plants cant use all the light energy that hits its leaves its at the wrong wavelength Amount taken in by an organism is called the gross productivity When in an organism some is lost as heat from respiration = respiratory loss About 10% becomes biomass Net productivity is the amount available at each trophic level Calculated by -> net productivity = gross productivity respiratory loss.

 Pyramid of numbers: - Shows the number of organisms in each trophic level - Not always pyramid shape -> small number of big organisms

(trees) and big numbers of small organisms (parasites) alter the shape Pyramids of biomass: Show the amount of biomass at each trophic level at a single moment in time Nearly always pyramid shape except when plant plankton involved -> short life span but reproduce very quickly means theres a lot over a period of time. Pyramids of energy: Shows the amount of energy available at each trophic level Always pyramid shape

 Productivity is the amount of energy input in a trophic

level that is converted into biomass Farmers aim to increase their productivity with as little input as possible: Monoculture -> growing a single type of crop over a wide area it allows: - Easier control of pests -> limited by the type of crop - Maximised profit -> growing high gross crops

1.

2.

3.
4. 5. 6. 7.

8.
9.

Fertilisers: Provide crops with minerals needed for growth e.g. Nitrates Crops use them as they grow so growth is limited, adding fertilisers replaces the minerals that are lost so increase growth Natural/Organic fertilisers -> materials produced directly from animals & plants, need to be decomposed before minerals are useable Artificial/Inorganic fertilisers -> they contain pure chemicals, already in form of mineral ions Can lead to eutrophication: When inorganic fertilisers are used they add mineral ions directly into the soil, these ions are soluble meaning they can be carried into nearby waterways = leaching Algae in the waterway rapidly grow because they have more nutrients to aid growth Results in algal bloom This reduces the amount of light energy that can reach the lower levels Plants growing at lower levels cant photosynthesise so die Algae die because mineral ions are used up Sparobiotic organisms decompose dead plant matter & reproduce quickly This uses up oxygen content in water Concentration of oxygen in the water falls dramatically and many animals die

 Pesticides: - Pests reduce productivity of crops by reducing the amount of -

energy for growth Weeds compete for light and mineral ions this causes interspecific competition. Weeds outcompete crops because they are faster growing Insects can reduce productivity as they eat and damage crops. Killing them means that less biomass is lost so they grow larger and have more productivity Biological control: Involved introducing a natural parasite or predator into the area, aims to reduce pest populations to a level that doesnt cause any major damage. Integrated systems: Use both chemical and biological agents The combined effect can often be more effective in reducing pest numbers meaning productivity is increased even more Can reduce cost if one particular method is expensive Reduced environmental impact because less chemicals are used.

 Intensively reared livestock: - Controlling the conditions they live in - Main principles are:

Controlling diet -> encourages production of meat with little fat 2. Hormone injections that encourage growth 3. Restricting movement -> so less energy is lost from them moving around 4. Warm environment -> less energy used to maintain body temperature
1.

 Life on earth is carbon based, there is a fixed amount of carbon and

1. 2. 3.

4.
5.

nitrogen in an ecosystem. So these elements must be recycled Microorganisms in the soil decay the organic matter this converts the carbon & nitrogen into useable forms that plants can take up. The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere fluctuate How the carbon cycle works: Carbon is absorbed by plants when they carry out photosynthesis -> become carbon compounds in plant tissues Carbon passed on to primary consumers and then secondary etc... All living organisms die -> decomposers breakdown matter the carbon is returned to the air when they respire which produces carbon dioxide If carbon ends up in places where there arent any decomposers then it can be turned into fossils over millions of years Carbon in fossil fuels is released when theyre burnt

 Respiration and photosynthesis cause fluctuations in the CO

concentration Respiration adds CO to the atmosphere and photosynthesis adds CO to the atmosphere but this changes daily and yearly Daily change in CO -> respiration takes place all throughout the day whereas photosynthesis only takes place in daylight hours, CO concentration falls during the day because its being removed by the plants, it increases at night because its no longer being removed by plants but all organisms are still respiring Yearly change in CO -> most plant growth occurs in the summer because there is more sunlight and its at a greater intensity consequently more photosynthesis can occur, CO concentration falls during summer because more is being taken in by plants. CO increases during winter and autumn because fewer plants are photosynthesising.

 Crop yields ->increasing CO concentration could be

causing an increase in crop yields, as CO is a limiting factor of photosynthesis, increasing the concentration will mean faster growth Insect pests -> climate change may effect the life cycle of some insect species, increasing temperature means that insects go through the larvae stage much faster, it may cause an increase in numbers or a decrease as insects are sensitive to temperature Wild animals & plants -> effects distribution and numbers as some animals can only thrive at specific temperatures, if its getting hotter then cold animals will have a smaller area to live in.

 Plants and animals need nitrogen to make proteins The atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen however its not in a usable form. How the cycle works: 1. Nitrogen fixation -> nitrogen gas in turned into ammonia by

2. 3. -

1.

bacteria found inside root nodules of leguminous plants, this can then be used by plants Ammonification -> nitrogen compounds from dead organisms are broken down by decomposers into ammonium compounds Nitrification -> ammonium compounds in the soil are changed into nitrogen compounds that can be used by plants Nitrifying bacteria (nitrosomonas) change ammonium compounds into nitrites Nitrobacter change nitrites into nitrates Denitrification -> nitrates in the soils are converted into nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria via anaerobic respiration

Succession is the process by which ecosystems change over time 2 types - Primary succession -> happens on land thats been newly formed or exposed, no soil or organic material to start with - Secondary succession -> happens on land that has been cleared of all plants but where soil remains How it works: - Primary succession-> An area become colonised by a species, seeds/spores blown in and begin to grow = PIONEER SPECIES - The abiotic conditions are hostile, only pioneer species can grow because they are adapted to cope with harsh conditions - The pioneer species change the abiotic conditions, they die and decomposers break them down, this forms basic soil - Now less hostile so new organisms can colonise the area etc.. - Secondary succession -> happens in the same way but there is a soil layer already - The pioneer species are much larger plants e.g. Shrubs - Better adapted plants and animals colonise the area and out compete the species present - The area eventually becomes more diverse until the climax community is reached

 Conservation sometimes means preventing succession in order to preserve an

1. 2. -

ecosystem in its current state 2 main ways to manage succession: Animals are allowed to graze on the land -> similar to mowing, animals eat the growing points of plants to stop them from establishing in an area Managed fires -> creates secondary succession, the species that grow back first are the species being conserved. Its important to conserve species because: Species are resources for lots of things that humans need e.g. Drugs, clothes and food Some people think we should conserve species because its the right thing to do Many species are attractive to look at Help to prevent climate change -> trees conserved so act as carbon sink Helps to prevent disruption of food chains -> disruption could mean loss of resources

1.

2.

3.

4. 5.

Plants can be conserved using seed banks -> store lots of plant species, if a plant becomes extinct then the we could grow new plants Fish can be conserved using fishing quotas -> limits to how many fish can be caught, helps maintain population numbers Captive breeding -> species that are endangered can be bred in controlled conditions to increase numbers, these can be reintroduced into the wild Relocation -> moving a species to a new location, less at risk so more likely to survive Protected areas -> protects habitats by restricting urban development.

 Individuals have 2 alleles for each

gene Gametes only contain one allele for each gene When gametes fuse together they form a genotype Genetic diagrams can be used to predict the genotype and phenotypes of the offspring Monohybrid inheritance -> inheritance of a single characteristic controlled by different alleles, they show the likelihood of alleles being inherited

 Some genes have codominant alleles Co dominance -> both alleles are expressed, they are both

dominant some characteristics are sex linked Sex linked -> allele carried on the sex chromosome The Y chromosome is much smaller than the X chromosome so carries less genes, so most genes are carried on the X chromosome Female = XX Male = XY As males only have one X chromosome they often only have one allele for sexed linked genes -> they express the characteristic of the allele even though its recessive As a result males are more likely to express recessive phenotypes for genes that are sex linked Genetic disorders caused by faulty genes located on the X chromosome include colour blindness & haemophilia For a female to be effected she would need 2 recessive alleles carried on the X chromosome where males only need one = females less likely to suffer

 Some times there is more the 2 alleles that code for the

same gene = Multiple alleles E.g. Blood groups: Blood group A = IaIa or IoIa Blood group B = IbIb or IbIo Blood group O = IoIo Blood group AB = IaIb Ia and Ib alleles are codominant and Io is recessive Genetic pedigree diagrams show how traits run in families -> show an inherited trait in a group of related individuals

 A gene pool is the complete range of alleles present in a 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

population How often a certain gene occurs is called the allele frequency Principle: The frequency of alleles in a population wont change from one generation to the next However this can only happen when certain conditions are met: Large population No immigration/emigration No mutations No natural selection Mating is random

 Can be used to predict allele frequency........ p + q = 1

You can figure out the frequency of one allele if you

know the frequency of the other P = frequency of the dominant allele Q= frequency of the recessive allele Can also be used to predict genotype frequency...... p +2pq + q = 1 P = homozygous dominant allele Q = homozygous recessive allele 2pq = heterozygous allele

 Sometime the allele frequency within a population

changes, this can happen when an allele codes for a characteristic that affects the chance of the organism surviving Individuals with the beneficial allele are more likely to survive and reproduce and pass on their genes The beneficial allele will increase in frequency in the next generation They in turn are more likely to survive and pass on their genes So the frequency increases even more This process is called natural selection

 There are 2 types of natural selection: 1.

Stabilising selection -> individuals with the alleles for a characteristic towards the middle of the range are more likely to survive and reproduce Occurs where the environment isnt changing -> no advantage to having values at the extremes Reduces the range of possible genotypes Indicated by the reduction in range on a graph Directional selection -> individuals with alleles at the extreme values are more likely to survive and reproduce Response to changing environment Indicated by a shift of the mean on a graph

 Geographical isolation and natural selection lead to speciation Speciation -> development of a new species

Occurs when populations of the same species become reproductively isolated

This can happen when a physical barrier causes some individuals to become

separated from the main population -> called geographical isolation Populations that are geographically isolated will experience slightly different conditions e.g. Climate The populations will experience different selective pressures and so different allele frequencies will result Different alleles will be advantageous and mutations will occur independently in each population Different allele frequency will mean there will be a change in the gene pool causing changes in phenotype frequencies Eventually they would of changed so much that they wont be able to breed together to form fertile offspring Resulting in separate species

 Put simply: 1. 2. 3.

4.
5.

Original population of individuals Populations become geographically isolated Physical barriers stop interbreeding between populations Populations adapt to new environments Differences accumulate in the gene pool leading to development of new species