Sie sind auf Seite 1von 48

Chapter 2 Introduction to Networking

2.1 Benefits of Networking 2.2 Types of Networks 2.3 Networking Standards 2.4 Network Protocols 2.5 LAN Architecture

Benefits of Networking

File, Print, and Application Services


The desire to share the valuable information was one of the driving forces behind the development of computer networks. The development of networks enabled multiple computers to connect together to share files and communicate via electronic mail(e-mail). Network devices such as printers connect to the network so that multiple users can share one printer.

Mail Services
E-mail works as a storageand-retrieval application. Mail messages are stored on an e-mail server until the recipient retrieves the e-mail. There will also be a post office box created for the users. When e-mail messages are received, the e-mail server will redirect the messages to the users post office box where the e-mails remain until the user retrieves them.

Mail Services
The storage-and-retrieval nature of e-mail systems does not require that the recipient be connected when the e-mail is sent. It can be picked up or retrieved at a later time.

Directory and Name Services


To enable users and systems on the network to find the services they require, computer networks make use of directories and name services. The network assigns a name to users, services, and devices so that they can be identified and accessed. Knowing the name of a service on the network enables users to contact that service without having to know its physical location.

Directory and Name Services


People work easily with names for services and other entities. They can rely on network directory and name services to translate those names into the addresses used to communicate with the desired service. After the initial setup of the directory or name service, this translation takes place behind the scenes, or transparently.

The Internet
The Internet is a worldwide public network, interconnecting thousands of other networks to form one large "web" for communication. Many private networks, some with thousands of users of their own, connect to the Internet by using the services of Internet Service Providers (ISPs). These linkages enable long distance access to network services for information and device sharing.

Network Administration
The on-going task of maintaining and adapting the network to changing conditions falls to network administrators. As they evaluate new technologies and requirements, administrators must measure their benefits against the issues, costs, and problems the new features may introduce to the network.

Types of Networks

Overview
Some networks are designed to interconnect many users and systems in a limited geographical region and to enable high-speed communication among them. Other networks connect a smaller number of devices that are separated by large geographical distances. To meet the requirements of these two broad categories of users, different types of networks have been designed.

Local-Area Networks (LANs)


Local-area networks (LANs) connect many computers in a relatively small geographical area such as a home, an office, a building, or a campus. The general shape or layout of a LAN is called its topology. All LANs require the networked computers to share the communications channel that connects them.

Wide-Area Networks (WANs)


A WAN is usually segmented into multiple LANs that make up a WAN. These lines are called point-to-point because they connect only two devices, one on each side of the line. They are called serial lines because the bits of information are transmitted one after another in a series. Connections across WAN lines may be temporary or permanent. WANs normally operate at lower speeds than LANs.

Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, the networked computers act as equal partners, or peers to each other. As peers, each computer can take on the client function or the server function. Individual users control their own resources. They may decide to share certain files with other users. They may also require passwords before they allow others to access their resources.

Client/Server Networks
In a client/server arrangement, network services are located on a dedicated computer called a server, which responds to the requests of clients. The server is a central computer that is continuously available to respond to a client requests for file, print, application, and other services.

Client/Server Networks
The distribution of functions in client/server networks brings substantial advantages, but it also incurs some costs. Although the aggregation of resources on server systems brings greater security, simpler access and coordinated control, introduces a single point of failure into the network.

Networking Standards

Proprietary versus Open Standards


Proprietary technologies are owned by one company and are generally not compatible with equipment sold by other vendors. Open source software is free and users are not bound to the copyright laws that might be broken when using proprietary software. The core code of open software can be easily studied by other programmers and improved. The only provision is that these improvements must be revealed publicly and distributed freely in a process that encourages continual innovation.

The OSI Reference Model


In 1984, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) developed the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model to promote interoperability in networking. The OSI model divides the functions of the network into seven layers. Viewing the layers from top to bottom, it presents a service model. At each layer, the function provided depends on the services of the layer below it.

The OSI Reference Model


The application layer provides the connection point for applications. It specifies the details of how an application makes requests and how the application on another machine responds. A request for network services originates at this layer. FTP, Telnet, Ping, and email are typical protocols at the application level.

The OSI Reference Model


The presentation layer specifies the arrangement, or syntax, of the data that the application expects. Since applications on different systems may represent or format their data in different ways, the presentation layer may include translations from one format to another. It also includes security and efficiency functions (encryption and compression).

The OSI Reference Model


The session layer establishes the rules of the conversation between two applications. The session layer allows a number of copies of an application to communicate with other applications at the same time by identifying each instance of the application as a separate session.

The OSI Reference Model


The transport layer provides delivery services for each session. It segments the data into more manageable parts. It can provide a reliable delivery service that guarantees that data arrives at its destination, or an unreliable best effort delivery service that transports the data without checking for errors.

The OSI Reference Model


The network layer specifies how addresses are assigned and how packets of data are forwarded from one network to another toward the destination. Routers operate at this level because they direct information to the correct location based on the type of routing protocol that is being used.

The OSI Reference Model


The data link layer specifies how packets of data are organized into frames on a particular type of network and the rules for inserting frames on to the network media. The data link layer is where hardware such as switches and bridges will operate.

The OSI Reference Model


The physical layer corresponds to the network hardware (cabling, media). This layer determines how binary data is translated into electrical, optical, or other types of physical signals transmitted between systems.

The OSI Reference Model


The main functions of these OSI model layers are to efficiently and effectively transmit data from one computer to another computer via network media. Each one of these layers performs specific functions that allow and prepare the data for transmission. The process of this data being passed down the OSI model layers and these layers preparing the data for transmission is called encapsulation.

The DoD Model


Even before the publication of the OSI model, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) sponsored a research network called ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency network). This DoD network was a predecessor to the Internet. It connected hundreds of universities and government agencies over leased telephone lines.

The IEEE
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) has been most active in defining LAN standards. Through its "802" working groups, it has published standards for the most widely implemented LANs. Devices like Network interface cards (NICs) that conform to the IEEE standards permit equipment built and sold by different manufacturers to interoperate on the same LAN.

The ITU
The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has defined standards for modems (the V.nn series), packet switching networks (X.25), directory services (X.500), electronic messaging (X.400), dialup devices (ISDN), and many other technologies for WANs.

Other Standards
The Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) supports a large library of technical standards including the definition for serial connections for dial-up modems. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) contributes standards for local area technologies, including Ethernet and Token Ring. The scope of ANSI standards includes (ASCII), (C, COBOL, and FORTRAN), and (SCSI).

Network Protocols

Protocol Suite
The function of the OSI network model is carried out by the protocols that are active at each layer. When a set of protocols operates in a coordinated way to deliver a number of functions, they are grouped into a protocol suite. A protocol is a controlled sequence of messages exchanged between two or more systems to accomplish a given task.

TCP/IP
The TCP/IP suite of protocols has become the dominant standard for internetworking. TCP/IP represents a set of public standards that specifies how packets of information are exchanged between computers over one or more networks.

TCP/IP
The following protocols function at the application layer of the OSI model:
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Simple Mail Transport Protocol (SMTP) Domain Name System (DNS)

The following protocols are seen at the transport layer of the OSI model:
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

TCP/IP
The following protocols are seen at the network layer of the OSI model:
Internet Protocol (IP) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Routing Information Protocol (RIP) Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

IPX/SPX
Internet Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX) is the protocol suite employed originally by Novell Corporations network operating system, NetWare. It delivers functions similar to the ones included in TCP/IP. In current releases, Novell supports the TCP/IP suite.

AppleTalk
Apple Computer also developed its own proprietary protocol suite to network Macintosh computers. Just as other companies have transitioned to the use of TCP/IP, Apple now fully supports the public networking standards.

LAN Architectures

Ethernet
The Ethernet architecture is the most popular type of LAN link used today. It is based on the 802.3 standard. This specifies that a network that implements the Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA-CD) access control method must use a baseband transmission over coaxial or twisted-pair cable that is laid out in a bus topology. Standard transfer rates are 10 megabit per second (Mbps), 100 Mbps, or 1000 Mbps.

Ethernet
Currently, 10BASE-T is one of the most popular Ethernet implementations. It uses a star bus topology. Advantages of 10BASE-T is that it is relatively inexpensive and has the ability to upgrade. The disadvantages of 10BASE-T are that the maximum length for a 10BASE-T segment (without repeaters) is only 100 meters (about 328 feet). UTP is more vulnerable to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and attenuation than other cable types. Attenuation is the decreasing of the signal, as it gets further away from the source.

Ethernet
100BASE-X comes in several different flavors. It can be implemented over Category 5 UTP (100BASE-T), over 2-pair Category 5 UTP or STP (100BASE-TX) or as Ethernet over 2-strand fiberoptic cable (100BASE-FX). Advantages are high-speed performance. At 100 Mbps, transfer rates are 10 times that of 10BASE-T. 100BASE-X shares the disadvantages of 10BASET, which are inherent to twisted-pair cabling, such as susceptibility to EMI and attenuation.

Ethernet
1000BASE-T is called Gigabit Ethernet. This architecture supports data transfer rates of 1 gigabit per second (Gbps), which is many times faster than a T-1 line. The greatest advantage of 1000BASE-T is performance. The only disadvantages associated with 1000BASE-T are those common to all UTP networks.

Ethernet
Half duplex allows for only one direction that can be used at a time when data is being transmitted over the lines. Data can only be sent and received at separate times.

Full duplex allows for two simultaneous directions of data flow. A telephone conversation between two people is a good example of how fullduplex transmission occurs.

Token Ring
Token Ring was originally developed by IBM and was designed to be a reliable network architecture based on the token-passing access control method. The Token Ring standards are provided in IEEE 802.5 and referred to as a star-wired ring. The outer appearance of the network design is a star, with computers connecting to a central hub, called a Multistation Access Unit (MSAU).

Token Ring
The first computer that comes online becomes the "hall monitor" and must keep track of how many times each frame circles the ring. It has the responsibility of ensuring that only one token is out on the network at a time. The monitor computer periodically sends a signal called a beacon, which circulates around the ring, as does any other signal. Each computer on the network looks for the beacon. If a computer does not receive the beacon from its Nearest Active Upstream Neighbor (NAUN) when expected, it puts a message on the network that notifies the monitoring computer that the beacon was not received, along with its own address and that of the NAUN that failed to send when expected.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)


Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a type of Token Ring network that runs at 100 Mbps. It is governed by IEEE 802.5. FDDI is often used for larger LANs, such as those connecting several buildings in an office complex or campus. FDDI runs on fiber-optic cable and combines high-speed performance with the advantages of the token-passing ring topology. Its topology is a dual ring.

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)


FDDI ring topology can be implemented as a physical ring or as a star-wired logical ring by using a hub. FDDI combines the advantages of token passing on the ring topology with the high speed of fiber-optic transmission. Its dual ring topology provides redundancy and fault tolerance. High speed and reliability will generally be more expensive to implement. The distance limitations, though less restrictive than those of other LAN links, make it unsuitable for true WAN communications.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen