Steel

Objective
To have an understanding of
Manufacturing of steels & their products, Alloy designation,

classification,
Properties & uses of various types .. Plain/ alloy/tool etc,

Effects of common alloying elements

Metal Alloys
Most engineering metallic materials are alloys. Elemental metals are generally very soft and not very usable. Metals are alloyed to enhance their properties, such as
strength, hardness or corrosion resistance, and to create new properties, such as
superconductivity and shape memory effect.

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Engineering metal alloys can be broadly divided into Ferrous alloys and Non-ferrous alloys
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Classes of Metals
Metal Ferrous Steels Carbon Low-C Medium-C High-C Low Alloy Highstrength low-alloy Cast irons High Alloy
Tool (Mo,V,W,Cr, Ni)

Non-ferrous

Grey iron
Nodular iron White iron

Stainless (Cr, Ni)

Malleable iron
Alloy cast irons

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Steel
Structural framing Roofing / Cladding

Interior products

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Steel-making
Since the mid-1800s, a number of processes have been developed for refining pig iron into steel Today, the two most important processes are Bessemer converter Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) Electric furnace

Both are used to produce carbon and alloy steels

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Making Steel
(lowering the carbon and removing impurities)
In 1856, H. Bessemer patented the converter for purifying pig iron. Hot air is forced through the molten metal in a pear-shaped vessel Si, Mn, C and other impurities are oxidized and removed as slag.
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The Bessemer converter

Much smaller furnace
More impurities removed (oxidised) Calculated amount of carbon added to make steel!, if required Poured into molds to form ingots Entire cycle time (tap-to-tap time) takes 25 to 30 min
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Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)

Accounts for 70% of steel production in U.S Adaptation of the Bessemer converter Bessemer process used air blown up through the molten pig iron to burn off impurities

BOF uses pure oxygen

Typical BOF vessel is 5 m inside diameter & can process 150 to 200 tons per heat Entire cycle time (tap-to-tap time) takes 45 min
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Basic Oxygen Furnace

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Basic Oxygen Furnace - Stages

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Charging Pig iron Blowing Tapping Pouring

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Electric Arc Furnace

Accounts for 30% of steel production in U.S. Scrap iron and scrap steel are primary raw materials Capacities commonly range between 10 and 100 tons per heat

Complete melting requires about 2 hr; tap-to-tap time is 4 hr

Usually associated with production of alloy steels, tool steels, and stainless steels Noted for better quality steel but higher cost per ton, 07-04-2012 WEC 12 compared to BOF

Electric Arc Furnace

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Casting Processes in Steelmaking

Steels produced by BOF or electric furnace are solidified for subsequent processing either as cast ingots or by continuous casting Casting of ingots a discrete production process
Continuous casting or semi-continuous process to make a billet, bloom, slab
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Bottom Pouring Technique Vs C.C. Plant

Bottom Pouring Technique
C.C Plant

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Casting
Molten steel from the laddle is poured into Cast Iron moulds by an old 1-Laddle

2-Ingot Mould
3-Bottom Plate

method Bottom Pouring

Technique (BPT). After solidification ingots are knocked out mannualy and stacked
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4-Sprue

Fig. Showing ingot mold being filled with molten metal through BPT

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Casting of Ingots
Steel ingots = discrete castings weighing from less than one ton up to 300 tons (entire heat) Molds made of cast iron, tapered at top or bottom for removal of solid casting The mold is placed on a platform After solidification the mold is lifted, leaving the casting
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Steel Ingots

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Continuous Casting

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Continuous Casting
Continuous casting is widely applied in aluminum and copper production, but its most noteworthy application is in steel-making Productivity increases over ingot casting, which is a discrete process For ingot casting, 10-12 hr may be required for casting to solidify Continuous casting reduces solidification time significantly
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Continuous Casting
Process molten metal continuously flows from the ladle into a tundish Then flows through a bottomless, water-cooled mold temp controlled water spray not fully cooled Straightened, reheated, sized, and cut-off Advantages Overcomes the ingot related difficulties of: Piping Joints and entrapped slag More cost effective 07-04-2012 WEC 21

Steel Making
Final steps

making useful products

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The whole spectrum of steel products!

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Alloy Designation

Carbon Steels and Low Alloy Steels

Alloy Designation Alloy Designation
AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute SAE: Society of Automotive Engineers ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials UNS: Unified Numbering System
Older, but still widely used 1040 Fe-0.4%C 2520 Fe-5%Ni-0.2%C 5195 =?
26 Fe-1%Cr-0.95%C

10, 11, 12 plain C steel 13 Mn steel 2x Ni steel, x=%Ni 3x Ni-Cr Steel, x=%Ni+Cr 4x Mo Steel, x=%Mo 5x Cr steels, x=%Cr 6x Cr-V Steels, x=%Cr+V 7x W-Cr Steels, x=%W+C 07-04-2012 9x Si-Mn Steels, x=%Si+Mn

X 1X 2

AISI Grade X1X2X3X4

Primary Carbon alloying content elements

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eg. 15 = 0.15%C

AISI-UNS Comparison
AISI UNS

1040
2520 316 (stainless steel)
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G10400
G25200 S31600

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What is a steel and alloy of?

Iron (Fe) and Carbon (C)

Plain Carbon Steels

An alloy of Fe & C whose
properties depends only upon the %age of Carbon present in it.

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Fe-C Phase Diagram

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Classes of Metals
Metal Alloys Ferrous Steels Carbon Low-C Medium-C High-C Low Alloy Highstrength low-alloy Cast irons High Alloy
Tool (Mo,V,W,Cr, Ni)

Non-ferrous

Grey iron
Nodular iron White iron

Stainless (Cr, Ni)

Malleable iron
Alloy cast irons

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Plain Carbon Steel vs. Alloy Steel

Lowest cost Should be considered first in most application 3 Classifications

Low Carbon Steel

Medium Carbon Steel High Carbon Steel

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Steels
0.5%C

0.95%C

Fe3C

0.2%C

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Plain Carbon Steels: General Properties

Yield strength: 300MPa (mild steels) - 700MPa (high C steels) Tensile strength: 400-1000 MPa Ductility: EL% 15-30 Youngs modulus: 210 MPa. Divided into low (<0.3%C), medium (0.3-0.6%C) and

high (0.6-1.2% C) carbon levels

Low

Medium

High

Increasing C content increases strength & hardness, but decreases ductility &
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0.2

0.8

1.2
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toughness

Low Carbon Steel

Carbon < 0.3wt% Used wherever soft, deformable materials are needed E.g., structural sections, rivets, nails, wire, pipe.

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Medium Carbon Steels

Carbon = 0.3 - 0.6wt% Used where higher strength is required E.g., gears, shafts, axles, rods,
etc.

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High Carbon Steels

Carbon = 0.6 - 1.2wt% used where high hardness is required Eg. hammers, chisels, drill, springs.

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Mild steel panels for easy shaping

Medium-carbon steel chassis for strength and WEC toughness

high-carbon steel springs

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Classes of Metals
Metal Alloys Ferrous Steels Carbon Low-C Medium-C High-C Tool
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Non-ferrous Cast irons

Low Alloy Highstrength low-alloy

High Alloy
Tool (Mo,V,W,Cr, Ni)

Grey iron
Nodular iron White iron

Stainless (Cr, Ni)

Malleable iron
Alloy cast irons

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Alloy Steel
Alloy steel may be defined as one whose characteristics properties are due to some elements other than Carbon. Although all Plain-Carbon steels contain moderate amounts of Mn & Si, but they are not considered alloy steels because the principal

function of Mn & Si is to act as de-oxidizer

during steel manufacturing process.
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Why alloying is necessary?

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Why alloying is necessary?

Many purposes, some of the most important are:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.
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increase hardenability, reduce danger of warpage, improve strength & toughness at high & low temperatures, resist grain growth at elevated temperature, improve wear, corrosion, fatigue & creep resistance. improve machine-ability, improve magnetic properties,
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Classification of Alloying elements

Some of the alloying elements are dissolved in ferrite & some stabilize austenite phase, whereas some combine with Carbon
to form carbides, as shown below:

Carbide former Cr W Ti Nb V Mo 07-04-2012 Mn

Austenite Graphitizer stabilizer Si Co Al Ni Mn Ni Co Cu

Ferrite stabilizer Cr W Mo V Si
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Alloying Elements used in Steel

Nickel (Ni) (2xxx)

2% to 5% Increases toughness Increases impact resistance 12% to 20% with low amounts of C possess great corrosion / scaling resistance universal grain refiner in alloy steels unfortunately is a powerful graphitiser. Invar contains 36% Ni virtually no thermal expansion measuring devices 07-04-2012used for sensitive WEC 44

Alloying Elements used in Steel

Chromium (Cr) (5xxx)
Usually < 2%

increases hardenability and strength

5 % Cr steels used for making forging dies typically used in combination with Ni and Mo 10.5% < Cr < 27% = stainless steel
used for corrosion resistance

Improves non-scaling properties Causes grain growth Reduces toughness

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Alloying Elements used in Steel

Molybdenum (Mo) (4xxx)
Usually < 0.3%

has strong carbide stabilizing influence

increases hardenability and strength Mo-carbides help increase creep resistance at elevated temps imparts some sluggishness to tempering influences improves the tensile strength & sp. heat resistance has favourable influence on the welding properties. Steel with higher contents tend to be difficult to forge

typical application is hot working tools

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Alloying Elements used in Steel

Manganese (Mn)
acts as de-oxidizer during steel manufacturing combines with sulfur (MnS) to prevent brittleness & improves machining forms stable Carbides >1% increases hardenability improves strength, wear resistance of steel 11% to 14% increases hardness good ductility high strain hardening capacity excellent wear resistance Ideal for impact resisting tools
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Alloying Elements used in Steel

Vanadium (V)
Usually 0.03% to 0.25%

has strong carbide-forming tendency.

stabilities martensite and increases hardenability. induces resistance to softening at high temperatures once the steel is hardened increases hot hardness properties in High Speed & Tool steels by increasing cutting properties.

increases strength without loss of ductility

Like Nickel it restrains grain growth

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Alloying Elements used in Steel

Tungsten (W)
helps to form stable carbides renders transformations very sluggish hence, once hardened, a steel resists

tempering influences.
increases hot hardness used as cutting tool steels

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Alloying Elements used in Steel

Sulfur (S) (11xx)

Imparts brittleness
Okay if combined with Mn

Improves machining Some free-machining steels contain 0.08% to 0.15% S

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Alloying Elements used in Steel

Boron (B) (14xx) for low carbon steels, can drastically increase hardenability improves machinablity and cold forming capacity Aluminum (Al) deoxidizer 0.95% to 1.30% produce Al-nitrides during nitriding
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Alloying Elements used in Steel

Copper (Cu) 0.10% to 0.50% increases corrosion resistance Reduces surface quality and hot-working ability used in low carbon sheet steel and structural steels Silicon (Si) About 2% increases strength without loss of ductility
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enhances magnetic properties

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Alloy Steel
>Most common alloy elements: Chromium, nickel, molybdenum,

vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, boron, and

copper. Added in small percents (<5%) increase strength and hardenability Added in large percents (>20%) improve corrosion resistance or stability at
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high or low temps

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High Strength Low Alloy Steels

Low alloy = alloying elements <10%

Yield strength Ductility

: 800-1100 MPa : EL% 15-20

Tensile strength: 950-1300MPa Youngs modulus: 200 MPa (alloying generally reduces Youngs Modulus)

Uses
Used where high strength or hardness is needed eg high strength bolts, connecting rods, springs, torsion bars, ball bearings. 07-04-2012 WEC

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Classes of Metals
Metal Alloys Ferrous Steels Carbon Low-C Medium-C High-C Tool
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Non-ferrous Cast irons

Low Alloy Highstrength low-alloy

High Alloy
Tool (Mo,V,W,Cr, Ni)

Grey iron
Nodular iron White iron

Stainless (Cr, Ni)

Malleable iron
Alloy cast irons

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Tool Steels
A class of (usually) highly alloyed steels

designed for use as industrial cutting tools,

dies, and molds To perform in these applications, they must possess
high strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear

resistance, and toughness under impact

Tool steels are heat treated

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AISI Classification of Tools Steels

T, M High-speed tool steels - cutting tools in machining H D Hot-working tool steels - hot-working dies for forging, extrusion, and die-casting Cold-work tool steels - cold working dies for sheet metal press-working, cold extrusion, and forging W S Water-hardening tool steels Shock-resistant tool steels - tools needing high toughness, as in sheet metal punching and bending
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Mold steels - molds for molding plastics and rubber WEC 57

Tool Steels
Carbon tool steels: 0.8~1.2%C High alloy tool steels are often alloyed with Mo, V, W, Cr and/or Ni E.g., HSS, W-Cr-V (18-4-1) Yield strength: 1000-1500+ MPa Tensile strength: up to 2000MPa Ductility: EL% 5-15 Youngs modulus: 200 MPa (alloying generally reduces 07-04-2012 WEC Youngs Modulus)

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Tool Steels
Uses Used where extreme hardness is required. Ductility/toughness usually sacrificed Eg. Moulds and dies, saws, cutting tools, punches

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Stainless Steel (SS)

Highly alloyed steels designed for corrosion resistance

Principal alloying element is chromium, usually greater than 11.5%

Cr forms a thin impervious oxide film that protects surface from corrosion Stainless-ness comes from the formation of a self-repairing Cr2O3 thin, adherent & impervious oxide film that protects or passivates the underlying steel.
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Stainless Steel (SS)

Nickel (Ni) is another alloying ingredient in certain SS to increase corrosion protection

Carbon is used to strengthen and harden SS, but high C content reduces corrosion protection since chromium carbide forms to reduce available free Cr, therefore Carbon content is kept very low - < 0.1% to avoid Cr3C2 formation
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Properties of Stainless Steels

In addition to corrosion resistance, stainless

steels are noted for their combination of

strength and ductility While desirable in many applications, these properties generally make SS difficult to work in manufacturing Significantly more expensive than plain C or low alloy steels
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Types of Stainless Steel

Classified according to the predominant phase present at ambient temperature: 1. Austenitic stainless - typical composition 18% Cr and 8% Ni

2. Ferritic stainless - about 11.5% to 27% Cr, low C (0.25% max), and no Ni
3. Martensitic stainless - as much as 18% Cr but no Ni, higher C content (0.150.75%) than ferritic stainless
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Additional Stainless Steels

Traditional stainless steels developed in early 1900s

Several additional high alloy steels have been developed and are also classified as stainless steels:
4. Precipitation hardening stainless - typical composition = 17% Cr and 7%Ni, with additional small amounts of alloying elements such as Al, Cu, Ti, and Mo 5. Duplex stainless - mixture of austenite and 07-04-2012 WEC 64 ferrite in roughly equal amounts

Stainless Steels - Typical Mechanical Properties

Yield strength : 200-1600 MPa Tensile strength : 300-1800MPa

Ductility

: EL% 2-20

Youngs modulus:~170 MPa (alloying reduces Youngs Modulus)

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Designation Scheme for Stainless Steels

Three-digit AISI numbering scheme

First digit indicates general type, and last two digits give specific grade within type
Examples: Type 302 Austenitic SS
18% Cr, 8% Ni, 2% Mn, 0.15% C

Type 430 Ferritic SS

17% Cr, 0% Ni, 1% Mn, 0.12% C

Type 440 Martensitic SS

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17% Cr, 0% Ni, 1% Mn, 0.65% C

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Assignment
Alloy steels Cr steels Ni steels Ni-Cr steels Mn steels Mo- steels V-steels

Thanks

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