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Basic Principle
All measures of process capability are based on the concept of calculating the number of standard deviations between the process center and the specification limits. A Six Sigma process has six units of standard deviation between the process center and both specification limits.
LSL
USL
If we assume the process is centered on the target and does not shift or drift the yields would be. Process Sigma Yield 1 0.6826895 2 0.9544997 3 0.9973002 4 0.9999367 5 0.9999994 6 1.0000000
LSL
USL
Calculating Yield
We know that Z is the number of units of standard deviation on a standard normal curve which has a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one. We also know any normal distribution can be converted to the standard normal using the equation for Z.
x Z
If the specification limits are substituted for X we can determine the number of units of standard deviation between the process center and the specification limits on the standard normal curve. Then we can use the tables to look up the probability a value will be less than that number.
X X s
In most cases we do not know or , so we substitute the sample statistics for the population parameters as shown.
Again using tables to look up the area under the curve when Z=-1 we find .1586. This means that 15.86% of the product has a value less than the lower specification limit. The yield is the value that is less than or equal to the USL and greater than or equal to the LSL. Thus the yield is (.8413 - .1586) or .6827, which is 68.27% (recall area under the curve at 1 standard deviation).
Distribution Plot
0.3
Density
0.2
0.1
0.0
-1
0 X
Capability Formulae
Cp = Pp = Cpk= Ppk=
Lesser of: Specification Width (s) Short-Term Process Width =
USL-LSL 6 ST
USL-LSL 6 LT
USL-X or 3 ST
USL-X or 3 LT
X-LSL 3 ST
X-LSL 3 LT
Capability Formulae
_ ^ ^ where ST = R/d2*; LT =
If we are relatively confident that there is little variation between cavities, we might look at this example as having a subgroup size equal to 5. This practice is not a common one and should only be attempted with caution. The data is in Bottle Caps.mtw.
P<.05 No
Raw Data
Yes
Normal
Non-Normal
Yes
No
Stratified
1. Yield can be modeled using e^(-dpu) 2. Process yield can be converted to process sigma using the standard normal distribution. Calc>Probability Distributions>Normal> Inverse 3. To convert from long term to short term add 1.5 sigma
No
Yes
Yes
Using Minitab
The data is continuous so test for normality Stat>Basic Statistics>Normality Test
80 50 20 5 1 0.01 0.992 0.994 0.996 0.998 1.000 1.002 1.004 1.006 1.008 Caps
The P value is > .05 therefore do not reject the assumption of normality. Much more about this in week 2.
Minitab Results
Process Capability of Caps
LSL
P rocess LS L Target USL S ample M ean S ample N S tD ev (Within) S tD ev (O v erall) D ata 0.995 1 1.005 1.00006 750 0.00198431 0.00198636
Target
0.
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.40 % > U S L 0.67 % Total 1.07
4 99
5 0.
6 99
0 0.
7 99
5 0.
9 99
0 1.
0 00
5 1.
2 00
0 1.
3 00
5 1.
5 00
Process Data
Calculated directly from the data. The within standard deviation is the pooled standard deviation of the subgroups.
Process Capability of Caps
LSL
P rocess Data LS L 0.995 Target 1 USL 1.005 S ample M ean 1.00006 S ample N 750 S tDev (Within) 0.00198431 S tDev (O v erall) 0.00198636
Target
0
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.40 % > U S L 0.67 % Total 1.07
9 .9
45 0
9 .9
60 0
9 .9
75 0
9 .9
90 1
0 .0
05 1
0 .0
20 1
0 .0
35 1
0 .0
50
Observed Performance
Process Capability of Caps
LSL
P rocess Data LS L 0.995 Target 1 USL 1.005 S ample M ean 1.00006 S ample N 750 S tDev (Within) 0.00198431 S tDev (O v erall) 0.00198636
Target
The percent that was outside of the upper and lower specification limits in this data set.
0
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.40 % > U S L 0.67 % Total 1.07
9 .9
45 0
9 .9
60 0
9 .9
75 0
9 .9
90 1
0 .0
05 1
0 .0
20 1
0 .0
35 1
0 .0
50
The percent that is expected to be outside of the upper and lower specification limits on an short term basis. This projection is based on the within standard deviation and the process mean.
LSL
P rocess Data LS L 0.995 Target 1 USL 1.005 S ample M ean 1.00006 S ample N 750 S tDev (Within) 0.00198431 S tDev (O v erall) 0.00198636
Target
0
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.40 % > U S L 0.67 % Total 1.07
9 .9
45 0
9 .9
60 0
9 .9
75 0
9 .9
90 1
0 .0
05 1
0 .0
20 1
0 .0
35 1
0 .0
50
The percent that is expected to be outside of the upper and lower specification limits on an long term basis. This projection is based on the overall standard deviation and the process mean.
LSL
P rocess Data LS L 0.995 Target 1 USL 1.005 S ample M ean 1.00006 S ample N 750 S tDev (Within) 0.00198431 S tDev (O v erall) 0.00198636
Target
0
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.40 % > U S L 0.67 % Total 1.07
9 .9
45 0
9 .9
60 0
9 .9
75 0
9 .9
90 1
0 .0
05 1
0 .0
20 1
0 .0
35 1
0 .0
50
Cpl and Cpu are calculated using the process mean, the respective specification limits and the within standard deviation. Cpk is the lesser of Cpl or Cpu.
Within Ov erall
P otential (Within) C apability Cp 0.84 C P L 0.85 C P U 0.83 C pk 0.83 O v erall C apability Pp PPL PPU P pk C pm 0.84 0.85 0.83 0.83 0.84
Target
USL
0
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.40 % > U S L 0.67 % Total 1.07
9 .9
45 0
9 .9
60 0
9 .9
75 0
9 .9
90 1
0 .0
05 1
0 .0
20 1
0 .0
35 1
0 .0
50
PPL and PPU are calculated using the process mean, the respective specification limits and the overall standard deviation. Ppk is the lesser of PPL or PPU.
Within Ov erall
P otential (Within) C apability Cp 0.84 C P L 0.85 C P U 0.83 C pk 0.83 O v erall C apability Pp PPL PPU P pk C pm 0.84 0.85 0.83 0.83 0.84
Target
USL
0
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.40 % > U S L 0.67 % Total 1.07
9 .9
45 0
9 .9
60 0
9 .9
75 0
9 .9
90 1
0 .0
05 1
0 .0
20 1
0 .0
35 1
0 .0
50
Within - Between
Process Capability of Caps
LSL
P rocess Data LS L 0.995 Target 1 USL 1.005 S ample M ean 1.00006 S ample N 750 S tDev (Within) 0.00198431 S tDev (O v erall) 0.00198636
This process is very stable as indicated by the Within and Between lines being very close together.
Target
0
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.40 % > U S L 0.67 % Total 1.07
9 .9
45 0
9 .9
60 0
9 .9
75 0
9 .9
90 1
0 .0
05 1
0 .0
20 1
0 .0
35 1
0 .0
50
Assistant Result
Capability Analysis for Caps Diagnostic Report
Xbar-R Chart Confirm that the process is stable. 1.002
Mean
Statistical Process Control chart indicates the process is stable. Note: stability and capability are evaluated independently.
Range
Assistant Result
Capability Analysis for Caps Summary Report
How capable is the process? 0 6 Customer Requirements Upper Spec Target Lower Spec Process Characterization Does the process mean differ from 1? 0 0.05 0.1 > 0.5 Mean Standard deviation Actual (overall) capability Pp Ppk Z.Bench % Out of spec Comments Conclusions -- The process mean does not differ significantly from the target (p > 0.05). -- The defect rate is 1.19%, which estimates the percentage of parts from the process that are outside the spec limits. Actual (overall) capability is what the customer experiences. 1.0001 0.0019864 1.005 1 0.995
Low
Z.Bench = 2.26
High
Yes
P = 0.378
No
Actual (overall) Capability Are the data inside the limits and close to the target?
LSL Target USL
Normality Test
Probability Plot of Caps Drift
Normal 99.99 99 95
Percent
Mean 1.000 StDev 0.001291 N 720 AD 0.326 P-Value 0.520
80 50 20 5 1 0.01 0.9950
0.9975
1.0025
1.0050
Capability Analysis
Capability Analysis
Process Capability of Caps Drift
LSL
P rocess D ata LS L 0.995 Target 1 USL 1.005 S ample M ean 0.999998 S ample N 720 S tD ev (Within) 0.00102066 S tD ev (O v erall) 0.00129055
Target
This process is changing over time as indicated by the difference between the Within and Between lines. Plot this data using a control chart.
0.9960 0.9975 0.9990 1.0005 1.0020 1.0035 1.0050
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 0.00 % > U S L 0.00 % Total 0.00 E xp. Within P erformance % < LS L 0.00 % > U S L 0.00 % Total 0.00 E xp. O v erall P erformance % < LS L 0.01 % > U S L 0.01 % Total 0.01
Control Chart
Stat>Control Charts>Variable Charts for Subgroups
Note: Any point outside of the control limits indicates an assignable cause (non-random event). Control Charts will be covered in detail later in the course. Control charts are only used here to assess process stability.
1 1 22 1 2 5 5 22 2 22 2 5 2 22 2 2 2 2 2 2 622 2 6 2 6 22 2 2 22 1
57 71 Sample
1.000
1 5 5522 22 5 55 2 5 2 6 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 22 2 5 5 2 222 2 55 1 1 11 1
127 141
UCL=1.001368
_ _ X=0.999998
LCL=0.998629
8
0.998 1 15 29
5 5 1
43
85
99
113
1
0.0045
Sample Range
UCL=0.005020
_ R=0.002374 2
LCL=0
Assistant Setup
Assistant Result
Capability Analysis for Caps Drift Diagnostic Report
Xbar-R Chart Confirm that the process is stable. 1.002
Mean
Statistical Process Control chart indicates the process is stable. Note: stability and capability are evaluated independently.
1.000 0.998
Range
Assistant Dialog
Assistant Output
Before/After Capability Comparison for Supplier 1 vs Supplier 2 Summary Report
Reduction in % Out of Spec
100%
Was the process standard deviation reduced? 0 0.05 0.1 > 0.5
Statistics
Yes
P = 0.000 Did the process mean change? 0 0.05 0.1
No
> 0.5
Yes
P = 0.136 Actual (overall) Capability Are the data inside the limits and close to the target?
LSLTarget SL U
No
Mean Standard deviation Capability Pp Ppk Z.Bench % Out of spec PPM (DPMO)
Before
Conclusions -- The process standard deviation was reduced significantly (p < 0.05). -- The process mean did not change significantly (p > 0.05). Actual (overall) capability is what the customer experiences.
After
Assistant Output
Before/After Capability Comparison for Supplier 1 vs Supplier 2 Process Performance Report
Capability Histogram Are the data inside the limits and close to the target?
LSL TargetUSL
Process Characterization Before Total N Subgroup size Mean StDev (overall) StDev (within) 750 5 14.970 0.51343 0.51061 After 750 5 14.998 0.051757 0.051383 Change
Before
Capability Statistics Before After 1.29 1.28 3.69 0.00 0.01 0 113 1.30 1.28 3.72 0.01 100 Change 1.16 1.17 4.21 -70.27 -69.73 -702667 -697260 1.17 1.17 4.23 -69.57 -695692 Actual (overall) Pp Ppk Z.Bench % Out of spec (obs) % Out of spec (exp) PPM (DPMO) (obs) PPM (DPMO) (exp) Potential (within) Cp Cpk Z.Bench % Out of spec (exp) PPM (DPMO) (exp)
After
0.13 0.11 -0.52 70.27 69.74 702667 697373 0.13 0.11 -0.51 69.58 695792
13.6
14.0
14.4
14.8
15.2
15.6
16.0
16.4
Actual (overall) capability is what the customer experiences. Potential (within) capability is what could be achieved if process shifts and drifts were eliminated.
Exercise 2
Assume a process owner has asked you analyze the data in Process Capability Exercise 1.mtw. Parts A and B are made on different machines in lots (subgroups) of 5.
The customer has established specification limits of 10 .1 and requires a Ppk of 1.33.
Prepare a brief presentation to describe your analysis and recommendations? Remember to present data practically, graphically and analytically.
99 95
Percent
80 50 20 5 1
0.01
9.8
9.9
10.0 Data
10.1
10.2
10.00
_ _ X=10.0009
UCL=0.2441
Sample Range
0.2
4
0.1
4 4 4
_ R=0.1154
LCL=0
11
1 5
UCL=10.0662
_ _ X=9.9996 5 1
16 31 46
5 1
61 76 Sample 91 106
1
121
LCL=9.9330
1
136
UCL=0.2441
Sample Range
0.2
4
0.1
4 4 4
_ R=0.1154
LCL=0
Target
USL
Within Overall
Potential (Within) Capability Cp 0.67 CPL 0.68 CPU 0.67 Cpk 0.67 Overall Capability Pp PPL PPU Ppk Cpm 0.66 0.67 0.65 0.65 0.66
9.88
Observed Performance % < LSL 1.87 % > USL 2.80 % Total 4.67
9.92
Exp. Within Performance % < LSL 2.10 % > USL 2.30 % Total 4.40
Target
9.84
O bserv ed P erformance % < LS L 4.13 % > U S L 4.00 % Total 8.13
9.90
9.96
Assistant Output
Reduction in % Out of Spec 61% % Out of spec increased by 61% from 4.77% to 7.66%.
This shows negative improvement. Lets reverse the order to make interpretation easier.
Was the process standard deviation reduced? 0 0.05 0.1 > 0.5
Statistics
Yes
No
P = 0.999 Did the process mean change?
0.05
0.1
> 0.5
Yes
No
P = 0.636 Actual (overall) Capability Are the data inside the limits and close to the target?
LSL Target USL
Before
Conclusions -- The process standard deviation was not reduced significantly (p > 0.05). -- The process mean did not change significantly (p > 0.05). Actual (overall) capability is what the customer experiences.
After
Was the process standard deviation reduced? 0 0.05 0.1 > 0.5
Statistics
Yes
P = 0.001 Did the process mean change? 0 0.05 0.1
No
> 0.5
Yes
No
P = 0.636 Actual (overall) Capability Are the data inside the limits and close to the target?
LSL Target USL
Comments
Before: Part B
After: Part A
Before
After
Conclusions -- The process standard deviation was reduced significantly (p < 0.05). -- The process mean did not change significantly (p > 0.05). Actual (overall) capability is what the customer experiences.
Note: Before and After were changed to Part B and Part A by double clicking on the field and typing the modified data.
Part A
10.00 9.95
0.2
Range
Normality Plots The points should be close to the line. Part B Part A Normality Test (Anderson-Darling) Part B Results P-value Pass 0.752 Part A Pass 0.324