Lecture 10 The Age of Reforms II: the Hamidian Period

Resentment and Opposition to the Tanzimat Reforms

Young Ottomans Muslims resentful because of the special treatment of non-Muslims Accession of Abdulaziz (1861-1876) 1870s attempts to curb the power of the bureaucracy and reinstate the sultans power Old Turkey faction the sultan and various statesmen not against the reforms but resentful that they were conducted under western pressure 1871 the sultan appointed marginalized statesmen to government positions in the hope that he would restore his position of authority 1872 reaction on the part of the bureaucracy, appointment of Midhat Pasha, one of the prominent reformist bureaucrats, to the office of grand vizier

Midhat Pasha One of the most prominent reformer bureaucrats Governor in the Danube, Nish and Baghdad provinces in the 1860s 1872 appointed a grand vizier but removed shortly afterwards 1876 involved in the coup against Abdulaziz and the constitutional project; grand vizier 1878 dismissed by sultan Abdlhamid II Exiled in Taif, Arabia Apparently murdered in 1884

Midhat Pasha (1822-1884)

The Eastern Crisis of 1875-1878

1875 revolt in Bosnia Christian peasants against their Muslim overlords

Subsequently Serbia began preparing for war against the Ottoman Empire 1876 April uprising in Bulgaria Bulgarian nationalism Initially concentrated on education, cultural and religious affairs Initially anti-Greek; the goal establish secular Bulgarian schools and an independent Bulgarian church free of Greek influence 1871 establishment of an independent Bulgarian church declared schismatic by the Greek Patriarchate 1860s Bulgarian revolutionary committee established in Bucharest began sending armed bands south of the Danube 1876 hastily organized an uprising, which was suppressed with a heavy hand by Ottoman irregular troops

The town of Batak in southern Bulgaria suffered some of the heaviest losses: a number of its inhabitants were burned to death in the church. Stories of the brutal suppression of the uprising provoked an outcry in Europe and insistence for Ottoman reforms Below: Image from the Batak church two years after the uprising

The First Ottoman Constitution and Parliament

May 1876 Ottoman bureaucrats and supporters of constitutionalism staged a coup and deposed sultan Abdulaziz Murad V installed as the new sultan, reigned for three months and deposed under the pretext that he was mentally unstable Abdlhamid II installed as the new sultan

June-August 1876 War between the Ottoman Empire and Serbia and Montenegro; Ottomans victorious
Consultations with the sultan and among various statesmen and groups regarding the proclamation of a constitution

Constitutional movement Resentment towards the dictatorship of the bureaucracy and the preferential treatment of the non-Muslims Constitutionalist critique conservative and Islamic in character Movement made up of diverse groups Ulema constitution was a way of regaining political power; constitutionalism derived from the Islamic principle of consultation Secular elite constitution and parliament regarded as a symbols of modernization and progress Opponents of European intervention constitution would stop European meddling in the internal affairs of the Ottoman Empire; a constitution would give rights to everyone Muslims and non-Muslims alike Constitutional movement initially emerged as an opposition to the bureaucracy but eventually bureaucrats and their opponents joined forces

Major dilemmas for the constitutionalists How to broaden representation without encouraging separatist nationalism How to reconcile the constitution with Islam Bureaucrats did not serious consider surrendering power because of the threat that the government would be weakened it would not be able to institute the necessary reforms

Formation of a constitutional commission and debates with the sultan in the fall of 1876
In the meanwhile European powers worked on convening a conference in Istanbul in December 1876 to present a reform program for the Ottoman Empire

December 23, 1876 promulgation of the first Ottoman constitution; announcement met with skepticism among Europeans Ottoman constitution based on the Belgian one but stripped of most of its liberal clauses the sultan still preserved considerable power, no ministerial responsibility, no expression of basic rights, executive branch of government had more power than the legislative one

Proposals of the Great Power conference in Istanbul in January 1877 creation of three large autonomous provinces Eastern and Western Bulgaria, and Bosnia under the rule of Christian governors appointed by the Great Powers; conditions were unacceptable to the Ottomans; conference disbanded and Russia began preparing for war

Parliamentary elections in the Ottoman Empire January and March 1877

Opening of the first Ottoman parliament in 1877

European provinces in the Ottoman Empire overrepresented; autonomous states and regions not represented Most of the elected parliamentary candidates were supporters of the Ottoman government Ottoman parliament two sessions June and December 1877 February 1878 sultan Abdlhamid temporary suspended the constitution and prorogued the parliament; the temporary measures lasted for 30 years

Russo-Ottoman War, 1877-1878 Pressure of Slavophile circles in Russia for decisive actions against the Ottoman Empire in order to liberate the subject Christian Orthodox populations

In spite of the heroic defense of the fortress of Pleven by Gazi Osman Pasha, the war was a disaster for the Ottomans, the Russian troops reached the outskirts of Istanbul One of the major consequences of the war was the large number of Muslim refugees from the areas affected by the hostilities
San Stefano Treaty March 3, 1878 signed by Nicholas Ignatiev and Safvet Pasha creation of a great Bulgarian state under Russian influence; serious blow for the Ottoman Empire

Bulgaria according to the Treaty of San Stefano and the Congress of Berlin

Congress of Berlin June-July 1878 Revision of the San Stefano treaty but still unfavorable to the Ottomans Smaller Bulgarian state, establishment of the province of Eastern Rumelia, Austrian occupation of Bosnia, British occupation of Cyprus, the Ottoman Empire obliged to conduct reforms in Macedonia and Eastern Anatolia

The Hamidian Regime The longest reigning and most controversial sultans in late Ottoman history Characteristics of the Hamidian Regime Freedoms within the boundaries of the law the guiding principle of the regime Introduction of an authoritarian regime the sultan saw himself as an enlightened bureaucrat who was the only one able to rule the Empire successfully Sublime Porte and bureaucrats subservient to the sultan Abdlhamid IIs vision of the Empire administration headed by a modern bureaucracy staffed by technocrats
Sultan Abdlhamid II (1876-1909)

 Personal loyalty to the sultan rewarded through medals, decorations and appointments Creation of a personality cult celebrations of the sultans birthday and enthronement anniversary; the sultan credited with all positive outcomes of reform Introduction of strict censorship words such as constitution, parliament, Armenia, Macedonia, Murad, etc. banned; at the same time expansion of the press periodicals concentrated on scientific and cultural subjects Encouragement of spying and reporting of anti-sultanic activities Stress on Islam and Muslims within and outside the Empire partly as a result of disenchantment with non-Muslims, as well as the fact that the Empire was becoming more Muslim; Abdlhamid began using more actively the title caliph At the same time the ulema were placed under strict control, those who resisted were banished Transfer of the sultans residence to the Yildiz palace further inland because of Abdlhamids fear of assassination

A view to the Yildiz palace and Hamidiye Mosque

Cultivation of the loyalty of Muslim subject populations, such as Albanians and Kurds Establishment of a regiment of Albanian imperial guards (pictured to the right) Establishment of the Hamidiye cavalry irregular troops made up of Kurdish tribesmen in eastern Anatolia

Members of the Albanian regiment of the Imperial guard

Members of the Hamidiye cavalry division

 The regime tried to gain the loyalty and boost its civilizing mission among tribal groups by establishing a special school for them The School for Tribes (Airet Mektebi)

 The regime encouraged a number of modernization and reform projects in the infrastructure, military and education throughout the Empire Construction of schools, hospitals and bridges Railways the Baghdad railway and the Hijaz railway

Foreign policy under Abdlhamid II No commitment to any power Stress on Islam interest in the fate of Muslims outside the Empire, particularly those who were under colonial domination Avoiding involvement in war, the only conflict the Greek-Ottoman war of 1897 Cooling of relations with Britain and tensions in the Arabian peninsula Rapprochement with Germany and a more limited rapprochement with Russia; German investment in the Baghdad railway

Nationalist Challenges to the Hamidian Regime

The Macedonian question at the end of the 19th c. Ottoman Macedonia became a battleground of Bulgarian, Greek and Serbian nationalist interests; 1890s emergence of two Macedonian revolutionary organizations, one of them backed by the Bulgarian government; resistance of local Muslim inhabitants Turks, Albanians and Slavs to the incursions of the revolutionary committees; Ottoman authorities tacitly supported Greek activities in the area targeting the Bulgarians Armenian nationalism 1887 Hunchak party established in Geneva, Switzerland by Russian Armenians, socialist tendencies 1890 Dashnak (Armenian Revolutionary Federation) party established in Tbilisi, Georgia, the Russian empire also socialist tendencies Events of 1894-1896 clashes between Armenians and Hamidiye Kurdish troops in eastern Anatolia led to Armenian rebellion suppressed by the Ottoman authorities 1896 takeover of the Ottoman Bank in Istanbul by Armenian revolutionaries hoping to raise awareness of the fate of the Armenians; followed by violence and massacres against Armenians in the capital

Nationalism among Muslims in the Ottoman Empire Albanians, Arabs and Kurds originally slow to develop, sought accommodation and greater autonomy within the Ottoman Empire Cultural and Intellectual developments during the Hamidian regime In spite of the renewed stress on Islam, materialist ideas became widely spread among members of the Ottoman Muslim elites Islamist intellectuals suffered persecution or were required to cooperate with the regime European influence in literature and art continued Alla Franga mores and lifestyle continued, even the sultan led such a lifestyle

Works by Ottoman painter Osman Hamdi (1842-1910) The Tortoise Trainer, 1906/1907 (right) and Mihrab 1901 (left)

Ladies by Osman Hamdi, 1890s

The Battle of Preveza by Osman Nuri Pasha The Conquest of Rhodes by Hseyin Zekai Pasha, 1882

More important terms

Russo-Ottoman War, 1877-1878 First Ottoman constitution First Ottoman parliament Congress of Berlin Abdlhamid II