Fundamentals of Thermodynamics

Presented by Prabodha

Definitions Extensive properties

Properties that depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system are called extensive properties. Example: Mass, Volume (V), Enthalpy (H), Entropy (S)

Intensive properties
Properties that do not depend on the system size or the amount of material in the system are called intensive properties. Example: Density, Specific volume (v), Specific enthalpy (h), Specific entropy (s)

Absolute zero
By international agreement, absolute zero is defined as 0 on the Kelvin scale and as 273.15 on the Celsius scale

Definitions Thermodynamic system

A system is a precisely defined region that is studied using the principles of thermodynamics. All space in the universe outside the thermodynamic system is known as the surroundings A system is separated from its surroundings by a boundary which may be imaginary or real

Definitions Energy
Energy associated with a system can be groped into two forms 1) macroscopic form 2) microscopic form

Macroscopic form
The macroscopic form of energy are those a system process as a whole with respect to some outside reference frame such as kinetic energy and potential energy. Macroscopic forms of energy exchanges with system without changing the molecular structure of the system

Definitions Microscopic form

Microscopic forms of energy are those related to the molecular structure of the system, and they are independent of the outside reference frame. Sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called internal energy of a system. Denoted by U

Definitions Enthalpy
The enthalpy of a system is defined as: H=U+pV where H is the enthalpy of the system U is the internal energy of the system p is the pressure at the boundary of the system and its environment V is the volume of the system

Specific volume
Volume of a unit mass is called specific volume. This is the reciprocal of density

Definitions Energy transfer mechanism

There are only three energy transfer mechanisms 1) Heat 2) Work 3) Mass transfer

Heat
In this mechanism energy transfers from one point to another due to temperature a difference. Rate of heat transfer increases with increasing

temperature difference

Definitions Mass transfer

In this mechanism, energy transfer take place from one point to another due to movement of mass. Rate of energy transfer will increases with increasing mass flow

Definitions Work
In this mechanism, energy transfer take place without any temperature difference of movement of mass. Rate of work transfer will not increases with increasing temperature difference.

Definitions Steady systems

System, whose properties do not change with time, is called steady system

- any property of the system

Uniform systems
System, whose properties do not change with location, is called steady system

Definitions

Open system
Heat, work and mass transfer take place across the system boundary of an open system Examples Gas turbine, Steam turbine, Boiler drum

Close system
Only heat and work transfer take place across the system boundary of a close system. Example Piston cylinder device

Properties of substances

Properties of substances

Properties of substances

Properties of substances

Properties of substances

Properties of substances
1 2 3 4 5

Properties of substances
1 2 3 4 5

Properties of substances
1 2 3 4 5

Properties of substances
1 2 3 4 5

5 2 3 4

Saturated liquid
Liquid that is about to vaporized is called saturated liquid. Addition of small amount of heat will creates vapor

hf - Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid uf Specific internal energy of saturated liquid sf Specific entropy of saturated liquid vf Specific volume of saturated liquid

Saturated vapor
Vapor that is about to liquefy is called saturated vapor. Extraction of small amount of heat will creates liquid

hg - Specific enthalpy of saturated liquid ug Specific internal energy of saturated liquid sg Specific entropy of saturated liquid vg Specific volume of saturated liquid

Properties of substances Dryness fraction

Liquid that is about to vaporized is called saturated liquid. Addition of small amount of heat will creates vapor

P-v Diagram

Properties of liquid vapor mixture

Steam table

P-v Diagram

P-v Diagram

P-v Diagram

P-v Diagram

1st law of thermodynamics For close system

The change in internal energy of a system is equal to the net heat added to the system minus the net work output of the system

Q W = DU
Q Net heat added to the system W Net work output of the system DU Change in internal energy W Q

1st law of thermodynamics For close system

Qout

Win

Wout

Qin Q W = DU Q = Qin Qout Net heat added to the system

W = Wout Win

Net work output of the system

DU = (Qin Qout) (Wout Win ) DU = Qin Qout Wout + Win

1st law of thermodynamics Sign convention

DU = Qin Qout Wout + Win

1st law of thermodynamics for open system steady state

min Cin mout Cout Qout

Q Net heat input

W Net work output min Input flow mout Output flow

Win

Zin Input elevation

Zout Output elevation Cin Input velocity Cout Output velocity

Q W m out (h out

1 1 C out 2 z out g) - m in (h in C in 2 z in g) 2 2

Applications steady state steady flow equation

1) Pump 2) Boiler 3) Steam turbine 4) Compressor of a gas turbine unit 5) Gas turbine

2nd law of thermodynamics Kelvin statement

Hot reservoir QH Process QC Cold reservoir Impossible W Hot reservoir QH Process W

QC>0

2nd law of thermodynamics Clausius statement

Hot reservoir QH Process QC Cold reservoir W Hot reservoir QH Process QC

Cold reservoir

W>0

Impossible

2nd law of thermodynamics Entropy (S)

T S diagram
T P2

P1 T

S1

dS

S
S2

dQ dS T

dQ Tds
Q Tds
S1 S2

T S diagram

Power cycles

Carnot cycle

2 ST Boiler 3 G Cooling Tower

BFP

Condenser

Carnot cycle

Q W DU

Th

DU 0
Q W

Tc
4 Qboiler 3 Ds

Q Qboiler Qcondenser

2 ST Boiler 3 G Cooling Tower

BFP

Condenser

Carnot cycle

Q W DU

Th

DU 0
Q W

Tc
4 Ds 3

Q Qboiler Qcondenser Qboiler Ds Th

2 ST Boiler 3 G Cooling Tower

BFP

Condenser

Carnot cycle

Q W DU

Th

DU 0
Q W

Tc
4 Qcondenser Ds 3

Q Qboiler Qcondenser Qboiler Ds Th

Qcondenser Ds Tc
2 ST Boiler 3 G Cooling Tower

BFP

Condenser

Carnot cycle

Q W DU

Th

DU 0
Q W

Tc
4 Ds 3

Q Qboiler Qcondenser Qboiler Ds Th

Qcondenser Ds Tc
W Ds (Th Tc )

Carnot

W Qboiler Ds (Th Tc ) Ds Th

Carnot

Carnot 1

Tc Th

Rankine cycle

3 ST Boiler 4 G Cooling Tower

BFP

Condenser

Supper heating cycle

4

Supper Heater 3

4 ST G Cooling Tower

Boiler

BFP 1

Condenser

Reheating
4 3 2 6

1 Supper Heater 4 ST Boiler 5 2 1 6 ST 7

Cooling Tower

Re- Heater

Condenser

BFP

Regeneration
6 5 4 7 2 1 Supper Heater

6 ST G 8 Cooling Tower

Boiler 4

Open FWH
3 2

1 Pump

Condenser

BFP