Analysis of Rocket Propulsion

P M V Subbarao
Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Continuously accelerating Control Volume.
THE TSIOLKOVSKY ROCKET EQUATION
Force Balance on A Rocket
D g M T
dt
dV
M
r
r
r
= u sin
D g M
dt
dM
C
dt
dV
M
r
r r
r
= u sin
r
r
r
r
M
D
g
dt
dM
M
C
dt
dV
= u sin
Let
drag
r
nal gravitatio
r
space
r r
V V V V A A A = A
}
= A
b
t
nal gravitatio
r
dt g V
0
sinu
}
= A
b
t
r
drag
r
dt
M
D
V
0
}
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = A
b
t
e
ri r
r
space
r
Mr
M
C dt
dt
dM
M
C
V
0
ln
For a typical launch vehicle headed to an orbit, aerodynamic
drag losses are typically quite small, on the order of 100 to
500 m/sec.
Gravitational losses are larger, generally ranging from 700 to
1200 m/sec depending on the shape of the trajectory to orbit.
By far the largest term is the equation for the space velocity
increment.
REACHING ORBIT
The lowest altitude where a stable orbit can be maintained, is at
an altitude of 185 km.
This requires an Orbital velocity approximately 7777 m/sec.
To reach this velocity from a Space Center, a rocket requires an
ideal velocity increment of 9050 m/sec.
The velocity due to the rotation of the Earth is approximately
427 m/sec, assuming gravitational plus drag losses of 1700
m/sec.
A Hydrogen-Oxygen system with an effective average exhaust
velocity (from sealevel to vacuum) of 4000 m/sec would require
M
i
/ M
f
= 9.7.
Geostationary orbit
A circular geosynchronous orbit in the plane of the Earth's
equator has a radius of approximately 42,164 km (26,199
mi) from the center of the Earth.
A satellite in such an orbit is at an altitude of
approximately 35,786 km (22,236 mi) above mean sea
level.
It maintains the same position relative to the Earth's
surface.
If one could see a satellite in geostationary orbit, it would
appear to hover at the same point in the sky.
Orbital velocity is 11,066 km/hr= 3.07 km/sec (6,876
miles/hr).
Travel Cycle of Modern Spacecrafts
MULTISTAGE ROCKETS
With current technology and fuels, a single stage rocket to
orbit is still not possible.
It is necessary to reach orbit using a multistage system
where a certain fraction of the vehicle mass is dropped off
after use thus allowing the non-payload mass carried to
orbit to be as small as possible.
The final velocity of an n stage launch system is the sum of
the velocity gains from each stage.
n n
V V V V V A + + + A + A + A = . ..........
3 2 1
ANALYSIS OF MULTISTAGE ROCKETS
M
0i
: The total initial mass of the ith stage prior to
firing including the payload mass,ie, the mass of
i, i+1, i+2, i+3,...., n stages.
M
pi
: The mass of propellant in the ith stage.
M
si
: Structural mass of the i
th
stage alone including the mass of its
engine, controllers and instrumentation as well as any residual
propellant which is not expended by the end of the burn.
M
L
: The payload mass
Mass ratio
pi i
i
i
i
i
M M
M
M
M
R

= =
+ 0
0
1 0
0
si i
si pi i
i
M M
M M M
R
+
+ +
=
+
+
1 0
1 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
+1
,
ln
i
ri
i space
r
Mr
M
C V
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 0 0
1 0
1 0 0
1 0
+
+
+
+

+

+ +
=
i i
si i
i i
si pi i
i
M M
M M
M M
M M M
R
( )
( ) ( )
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0
1 0 0
1 0
1
+ +
+
+
+

+
=
i i
si
i i
i
i i
i
i
M M
M
M M
M
M M
M
R
Structural coefficient
( ) pi si
si
i i
si
i
M M
M
M M
M
+
=

=
+1 0 0
c
Payload ratio
( )
( ) 1 0 0
1 0
+
+

=
i i
i
i
M M
M

( )
( ) L n
L
n n
n
n
M M
M
M M
M

=
+
+
0 1 0 0
1 0

i i
i
i
R
c

+
+
=
1
Space (Ideal) velocity increment

=
n
i i n
R C V
1
ln
Payload fraction
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= = I
n
L L
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
0 03
04
02
03
01
02
01
....
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
= = I
n
n L
M
M

1
....
1 1 1
3
3
2
2
1
1
01
MOMENTUM BALANCE FOR A ROCKET
Rocket mass X Acceleration = Thrust Drag -gravity effect
drag T
r
r
F g F
dt
dV
M = u sin
EFFECTIVE EXHAUST VELOCITY
The total mechanical impulse (total change of omentum)
generated by an applied force, F
T
, is:
} }
|
.
|

\
|
+ + = =
ri
V
i
drag
r
r
ti
Ti i
dt F g
dt
dV
M F I
0 0
sinu
The total propellant mass expended is
}
=
ti
i pi
dt m M
0

The instantaneous change of momentum per unit expenditure

of propellant mass defines the effective exhaust velocity.
i
i
Ti
pi
i
i
S
m
F
dM
dI
C = = =

Rocket Principles


High pressure/temperature/velocity exhaust gases
provided through combustion and expansion through
nozzle of suitable fuel and oxidiser mixture.

A rocket carries both the fuel and oxidiser onboard
the vehicle whereas an air-breather engine takes in
its oxygen supply from the atmosphere.
Criteria of Performance
Specific to rockets only.
thrust
specific impulse
total impulse
effective exhaust velocity
thrust coefficient
characteristic velocity
Thrust (F)
For a rocket engine:

m
( )
amb e e ejects ejects T
p p A U m F + =

Where:
= propellant mass flow rate
p
e
= exit pressure, p
aamb
= ambient
pressure
U
ejects
= exit plane velocity, A
e
= exit area
Specific Impulse (I or I
sp
)
The ratio of thrust / ejects mass flow rate is used to define a
rockets specific impulse-best measure of overall performance of
rocket motor.

In SI terms, the units of I are m/s or Ns/kg.
In the US:
with units of seconds - multiply by g (i.e. 9.80665 m/s
2
) in
order to obtain SI units of m/s or Ns/kg.
Losses mean typical values are 92% to 98% of ideal values.

ejects
T
m
F

=
sp
I
Total Impulse (I
tot
)

Defined as:
where t
b
= time of burning

If F
T
is constant during burn:
}
=
b
t
T
dt F
0
total
I
b T
t F =
total
I
Thus the same total impulse may be obtained by
either :
high F
T
, short t
b
(usually preferable), or
low F
T
, long t
b
Also, for constant propellant consumption (ejects) rate:

b ejects
ejects
T
t m
m
F

=
total
I
Effective Exhaust Velocity (c)

Convenient to define an effective exhaust
velocity (c), where:
c m F
ejects T

=
I = =
ejects
T
m
F
c

( )
ejects
e
m
p
c

e amb
e
A p
U

+ =
Thrust Coefficient (C
F
)

Defined as:

t
T
F
A
F
C
c
P
=
where p
c
= combustion chamber pressure,
A
t
= nozzle throat area
Depends primarily on (p
c
/p
a
) so a good indicator of
nozzle performance dominated by pressure ratio.

Characteristic Velocity (c*)

Defined as:
(6)
ejects
t
*
m
A
C

c
P
=
Calculated from standard test data.
It is independent of nozzle performance and is
therefore used as a measure of combustion
efficiency dominated by T
c
(combustion chamber
temperature).

Thermodynamic Performance - Thrust
Parameters affecting thrust are primarily:
mass flow rate
exhaust velocity
exhaust pressure
nozzle exit area
Thermodynamic Performance
- Specific Impulse
Thermodynamic Performance
- Specific Impulse






Variable Parameters - Observations
Strong pressure ratio effect - but rapidly diminishing returns
after about 30:1.
High T
c
value desirable for high I - but gives problems with
heat transfer into case walls and dissociation of combustion
products practical limit between about 2750 and 3500 K,
depending on propellant.
Low value of molecular weight desirable favouring use of
hydrogen-based fuels.
Low values of desirable.
31

Thrust Coefficient (C
F
)

Maximum thrust when exhausting into a
vacuum (e.g. in space), when:


(11a
)
Thrust Coefficient (C
F
)
- Observations

More desirable to run a rocket under-expanded
(to left of optimum line) rather than over-expanded.
Uses shorter nozzle with reduced weight and size.
Increasing pressure ratio improves performance
but improvements diminish above about 30/1.
Large nozzle exit area required at high pressure
ratios implications for space applications.


Actual Rocket Performance






Performance may be affected by any of the following
deviations to simplifying assumptions:
Properties of products of combustion vary with static
temperature and thus position in nozzle.
Specific heats of combustion products vary with temperature.
Non-isentropic flow in nozzle.
Heat loss to case and nozzle walls.
Pressure drop in combustion chamber due to heat release.
Power required for pumping liquid propellants.
Suspended particles present in exhaust gas.
Internal Ballistics
Liquid propellant engines store fuel and oxidiser
separately - then introduced into combustion chamber.

Solid propellant motors use propellant mixture
containing all material required for combustion.

Majority of modern GW use solid propellant rocket
motors, mainly due to simplicity and storage
advantages.

Internal ballistics is study of combustion process of
solid propellant.
Solid Propellant Combustion
Combustion chamber is high pressure tank
containing propellant charge at whose
surface burning occurs.

No arrangement made for its control charge
ignited and left to itself so must self-regulate
to avoid explosion.

Certain measure of control provided by
charge and combustion chamber design and
with inhibitor coatings.