Anatomy of Eukaryotic Cells

Biology II Anatomy & Physiology

Origin of Cellular Life

The Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
o For about 500 million years, the Earth was continually bombarded by chunks of rock and ice in the solar system.

The early atmosphere of Earth contained:

o o o o o Water vapor H2O Nitrogen N2 Carbon dioxide CO2 Methane CH4 Ammonia NH3

Origin of Cellular Life

How did life arise from such a harsh environment? Two scientists designed a model of what conditions were like on Earth at this time.
o This is called the Miller-Urey Apparatus

Miller-Urey Apparatus
This apparatus simulated three important conditions on Earth:
The high amount of lightning Heat and gases released by volcanic activity Water vapor present in the atmosphere.

Results of Miller-Urey Apparatus

Simple compounds including water (H2O), methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and hydrogen (H2) were used to simulate the atmosphere. After 2 weeks, 10-15% of the carbon had been used to form sugars, amino acids, and parts of nucleic acids.
o These simple organic compounds could have produced the proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates that make up life today.

 The first life forms on Earth were likely single-celled prokaryotic organisms. Prokaryotic organisms are single-celled organisms that do not have a nucleus.
o Their DNA or RNA is usually floating freely inside the cell.

The First Cells

Prokaryotic cells also do not have any membrane bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotes are organisms with much larger and more complex cells than prokaryotes. DNA is in a nucleus that is bounded by a nuclear membrane. Have membrane-bound organelles The largest eukaryotic cells are 0.1mm to 1.0mm in size. Why havent they evolved any larger?

Surface area increases while Total volume remains constant

5 1 1
Total surface area (height x width x number of sides x number of boxes) Total volume (height x width x length X number of boxes) Surface-to-volume ratio (surface area volume)

150

750

125

125

1.2

 If the larger cell is instead broken down into 125 smaller cells, it will once again have enough surface area. This is why multicellular organisms exist!

The ostrich egg is one of the largest known single cells.

Cell Organization
The eukaryotic cell can be divided into two major parts: the nucleus and the cytoplasm. The nucleus is a separate compartment that contains the DNA of the cell. The cytoplasm is the fluid portion of the cell outside the nucleus.
o Prokaryotic cells have cytoplasm as well, even though they do not have a nucleus.

Eukaryotic Cell Anatomy

A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that partition the cell into organelles.
o Organelles are small structures within cells that have specific jobs.

Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles, although there are a few differences.

Animal Cell Anatomy

Lysosome Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Cytoplasm Vacuole Mitochondria Nuclear Membrane Golgi Apparatus Nucleolus Chromatin (DNA) Centriole Nuclear Pores Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Plasma Membrane

Villi

The Nucleus
The nucleus contains most of the cells genes and is usually the largest organelle. The nuclear envelope is a membrane that encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm.

 In the same way that the boss gives the orders to control a factory, the nucleus is the control center of the cell. The nucleus contains nearly all the cells DNA and, with it, the coded instructions for making proteins and other important molecules.

The Nuclear Membrane

The nuclear envelope is dotted with thousands of nuclear pores, which allow material to move into and out of the nucleus. The nucleus mainly contains chromatin the cells DNA instructions joined with proteins.

The Nuclear Membrane

The nucleus also contains a small dense region called the nucleolus. The nucleolus produces ribosomes, which are needed to build proteins.

Organelles that Build Proteins

Because proteins carry out so many of the essential functions of living things, a big part of the cell is devoted producing and transporting them.

Proteins are synthesized on ribosomes, which can be found in two places:

o Freely floating in the cytoplasm o Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum

Ribosomes: Protein Factories

Ribosomes are particles made of RNA and protein
o Ribosomes produce proteins by following coded instructions that come from DNA. o Each ribosome is like a small machine in a factory, turning out proteins on orders that come from its DNA boss.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a huge membrane that is connected to the nuclear membrane. There are two distinct regions of ER:
o Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes o Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum:
o o o o Synthesizes lipids Metabolizes carbohydrates Stores calcium Detoxifies poison

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not contain any ribosomes, so it is unable to synthesize proteins.

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

The rough ER
o Holds ribosomes o Produces any proteins needed by the cell.

The Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus is a series of flattened membrane sacs in the cytoplasm. Functions of the Golgi apparatus:
o Modifies, sorts, and packages materials into transport vesicles for storage or transport out of the cell. o A typical path for a protein produced by the cell: o Rough ER Golgi Cell membrane Released by cell

LE 6-16-1

Nucleus

Rough ER

Smooth ER Nuclear envelope

LE 6-16-2

Nucleus

Rough ER

Smooth ER Nuclear envelope cis Golgi

Transport vesicle

trans Golgi

LE 6-16-3

Nucleus

Rough ER

Smooth ER Nuclear envelope cis Golgi

Transport vesicle

Plasma membrane trans Golgi

Organelles that Store, Clean Up, and Support

These are organelles that help the cell maintain its shape, clean up wastes, and store material needed later.
o Vacuoles o Lysosomes o Cytoskeleton

Vacuoles
Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that store many materials. Plant cells often have one large central vacuole. This fills with water, making the cell rigid.
o When they are empty and dry, plants wilt!

 Lysosomes, formed by the Golgi, serve as the cells cleanup crew. A lysosome has a lower pH, and is full of enzymes that can digest proteins, lipids, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids.
o Can also breakdown old organelles so they can be re-used.

Lysosomes

Perioxisomes are similar to lysosomes, but are formed by the endoplasmic reticulum.
o These break down hydrogen perioxide (H2O2), a dangerous by-product of fatty acid digestion.

Animation: Lysosome Formation

H2O2 H2 + O2
Enzyme: Catalase

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments that give the cell shape.
o Can also help transport materials across the cell.

Centrioles are part of the cytoskeleton that help move chromosomes during cell division.

Organelles that Capture and Release Energy

All life requires energy. Organisms either can get their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis, or by eating other organisms via cell respiration. Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts. Cell respiration occurs in mitochondria.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are the power plants of the cell. They convert the chemical energy stored in food into smaller molecules for the cell to use. Mitochondria have two membranes, outer and inner. The inner membrane is folded up to increase the amount of surface area to do chemical reactions.

 Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae

Chloroplasts

Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane is a selective barrier.
o Allows passage of oxygen, nutrients into the cell, and waste out of the cell.

The general structure of a biological membrane is a double layer of phospholipids

o This allows the cell to control what goes in and out.

How are Plant Cells Different?

Chloroplasts and mitochondria present. Large, central vacuole instead of multiple small ones. Cell wall in addition to a cell membrane.

 The cell wall is made of cellulose and serves as support and protection for the cell. Animals do not have cell walls, but plants, fungi, and algae do. The cell wall is outside of the cell membrane.

Cell Wall

Plants: Plasmodesmata
The cell wall is so thick that oxygen, nutrients, water, and waste cannot travel easily through. Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell walls Through plasmodesmata, water and other small molecules can enter the cell.

Animals: Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions

Although animal cells do not have cell walls, they also have special structures within their cell membranes. At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid. Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells
o Example: Cardiac muscle cells o Example: Layers of outer skin cells o Example: Lining of small intestines

Case Study: Food Poisoning

Bacteria like E.coli, salmonella, and H. pylori release signals into intestinal cells, causing the break down of tight junctions.

Once the tight junctions are gone, water is able to seep into the small intestine, causing diarrhea.

LE 6-31

Tight junctions prevent fluid from moving across a layer of cells

Tight junction

0.5 m

Tight junction Intermediate filaments Desmosome 1 m

Space between cells

Plasma membranes of adjacent cells

Gap junctions

Gap junction Extracellular matrix 0.1 m

The Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane is the boundary that separates the living cell from its nonliving surroundings The plasma membrane exhibits selective permeability, meaning some substances can go through, others cannot. Plasma membranes are primarily made of phospholipids and proteins.

Phospholipids
A phospholipid is similar to a lipid, but one of the fatty acids is replaced by a phosphate (PO4). The two fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate head is hydrophilic.

 When phospholipids are added to water, they self-assemble into a bilayer

o The phospholipids form the outer part that is in contact with the water. o The fatty acids form the inner part that is away from water.

Hydrophilic head Hydrophilic head

WATER WATER

Hydrophobic tails

WATER WATER

This phospholipid bilayer creates the basic structure of all cell membranes.

Fluid Mosaic Model

The fluid mosaic model states that a membrane is constantly moving with a mixture of proteins embedded in it.

 As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a solid state Membranes must be fluid to work properly; they are usually about as fluid as vegetable oil.

LE 7-5b

Fluid

Viscous (Thick)

Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails with kinks

Saturated hydrocarbon tails

Membranes are fluid because they contain a high number of unsaturated fatty acids.

 Cholesterol helps to maintain the homeostasis of membranes, keeping them fluid.

o At warm temperatures, cholesterol keeps phospholipids from moving around too much. o At cool temperatures, it maintains fluidity by preventing tight packing

Membrane Proteins
Proteins determine most of the membranes specific functions Peripheral proteins are on the surface of the membrane, either outside or inside the cell. Integral proteins go all the way through the phospholipid bilayer and contact both sides.

Membrane Proteins
Six major functions of membrane proteins:
1. Transport substances across the cell membrane.

2. Serve as enzymes for reactions.

3. Receiving signals (e.g. hormones).

Membrane Proteins and Their Functions

4. Cell-cell recognition

5. Joining of two cells together

6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton

Membrane Carbohydrates
Cells can recognize each other by binding to carbohydrates on the plasma membrane. These carbohydrates vary among species, individuals, and even cell types in an individual.
o This is how the immune system recognizes self and foreign cells. o Example: Blood type (A, B, AB, O) is determined by markers on your red blood cell membranes.

Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer

The cell membrane is selectively permeable, meaning some molecules pass through, others cannot. Nonpolar (hydrophobic) molecules can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and pass through the membrane rapidly
o Examples: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones made of lipids

Large polar (hydrophilic) molecules, cannot cross the membrane as easily.

o Examples: Glucose, sucrose, proteins

Passive Transport
Diffusion is the movement of molecules areas
of greater concentration to areas of lower concentration.

This is considered passive transport because no energy is required.

LE 7-11a

Molecules of dye

Membrane (cross section)

WATER

Net diffusion

Net diffusion

Equilibrium

Diffusion of one solute

Molecules of solute gradually pass through the membrane, eventually reaching equilibrium.

LE 7-11b

Net diffusion Net diffusion

Net diffusion Net diffusion

Equilibrium Equilibrium

Diffusion of two solutes

Osmosis and Water Balance

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane The direction of osmosis is determined only by a difference in the concentration of solutes.
o Solutes are substances dissolved in water, like sugar or salts.

Water diffuses across a membrane from the region of lower solute concentration to the region of higher solute concentration

LE 7-12

Lower concentration of solute (sugar)

Higher concentration of sugar

Same concentration of sugar

H2 O

sugar molecules cannot pass through pores, but water molecules can

Osmosis

Water Balance of Cells Without Walls

These are the three types of solutions that cells can be placed in: Isotonic solution: concentration of solutes (sugars, salts) is the same as that inside the cell
o cell does not change

Hypertonic solution: concentration of solutes is greater outside the cell

Hypotonic solution: concentration of solutes is lower than that inside the cell
o cell gains water and bursts o cell loses water and shrivels up

Effect of Tonicity on Animal and Plant Cells

Can you predict what will happen when a red blood cell is exposed to different types of solutions?

LE 7-13
Distilled water Animal cell H2O H2O

Isotonic solution

Saltwater

Lysed

Shriveled

Plant cell

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid (normal)

Flaccid

Plasmolyzed

LE 7-13
Distilled water Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O

Isotonic solution

Salt water

Lysed

Normal

Shriveled

Plant cell

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid (normal)

Flaccid

Plasmolyzed

LE 7-13
Distilled water Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O

Isotonic solution

Saltwater

Lysed

Normal

Shriveled

Plant cell

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid (normal)

Flaccid

Plasmolyzed

LE 7-13
Distilled water Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O

Isotonic solution

Salt water

Lysed

Normal

Shriveled

Plant cell

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid (normal)

Flaccid

Plasmolyzed

 Animal cells cannot survive in a hypertonic or hypotonic environment because their cell membranes are too thin. Some organisms have adaptations to allow them to survive in these environments.
o Example: The protist Paramecium lives in a hypotonic environment. It has vacuole that can absorb excess water and pump it back out of the cell.

LE 7-14
Filling vacuole 50 m

Contracting vacuole

50 m

Water Balance of Cells with Walls

Plant cells have cell walls. Cell walls are thicker then plasma membranes and do not burst. This allows plants to survive in different environments.

LE 7-13
Saltwater solution Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O

Isotonic solution

Distilled water

Lysed

Normal

Shriveled

Plant cell

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid (normal)

Flaccid

Plasmolyzed

LE 7-13
Hypotonic solution Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O

Isotonic solution

Hypertonic solution

Lysed

Normal

Shriveled

Plant cell

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid (normal)

Flaccid

Plasmolyzed

LE 7-13
Hypotonic solution Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O

Isotonic solution

Hypertonic solution

Lysed

Normal

Shriveled

Plant cell

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid (normal)

Flaccid

Plasmolyzed

LE 7-13
Hypotonic solution Animal cell H2O H2O H2O H2O

Isotonic solution

Hypertonic solution

Lysed

Normal

Shriveled

Plant cell

H2O

H2O

H2O

H2O

Turgid (normal)

Flaccid

Plasmolyzed

Facilitated Diffusion
In facilitated diffusion, transport proteins aid movement of molecules across the plasma membrane
o This increases the rate of transport. o This is considered passive transport because no energy is used.

 Channel proteins, act like a tunnel that ions or other molecules can use to enter the cell.
o Example: Aquaporins facilitate the passage of water.

Transport Proteins

Carrier proteins, bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane
o A transport protein is specific for one substance only.

Active Transport
Active transport moves substances against their concentration gradient Active transport requires energy, usually in the form of ATP
o ATP is the smallest, most basic energycontaining molecule that cells use.

Active transport is performed by specific proteins embedded in the membranes

Exocytosis
In exocytosis, transport vesicles from the Golgi fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents to the outside.

Endocytosis
In endocytosis, the cell takes in large molecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis.