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Presentation Contents:
Back to Basics Microwaves Why Microwaves? Analog/ Digital Transmission Analog-to-Digital Converter Pulse Code Modulation Modulation Analog Modulation Digital Modulation Why Digital Modulation? Multiplexing Types of Multiplexing Multiplexing Hierarchies Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy Synchronous Digital Hierarchy E-Carrier System E-Carrier Hierarchy Levels
Back to Basics
Wave
A wave is a disturbance that propagates (travels) through space and time, usually by transference of energy. For example, sound waves propagate via air molecules slamming into their neighbors, which push their neighbors into their neighbors (and so on); when air molecules collide with their neighbors, they also bounce away from them (restoring force). This keeps the molecules from actually traveling with the wave. Waves travel and transfer energy from one point to another, often with no permanent displacement of the particles of the mediumthat is, with little or no associated mass transport. They consist instead of oscillations or vibrations around almost fixed locations. Imagine a cork on rippling water, it would bob up and down staying in about the same place while the wave itself moves outward. When we say that a wave carries energy but not mass, we are referring to the fact that even as a wave travels outward from the center (carrying energy of motion), the medium itself does not flow with it.
Back to Basics
Types of Waves
Here are some of the many famous types of waves; Sound Waves Standing Waves Electromagnetic Waves Microwaves
Properties of Waves
Frequency Rate of oscillation of a wave is Frequency. Wavelength Distance between successive crests or successive troughs is Wavelength. Relationship b/w Frequency & Wavelength Speed of Wave = Frequency x Wavelength
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Electromagnetic Waves (EM Waves) Self-propagating waves that can travel in both Vacuum & Matter with speed of light (Theoretically). It comprises electric and magnetic field components, which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the direction of energy propagation. EM radiation carries energy and momentum that may be imparted to matter with which it interacts. According to Maxwell's equations, a spatially-varying electric field generates a time-varying magnetic field and vice versa. Therefore, as an oscillating electric field generates an oscillating magnetic field, the magnetic field in turn generates an oscillating electric field, and so on. These oscillating fields together form an electromagnetic wave. When any wire (or other conducting object such as an antenna) conducts alternating current, electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the electric current. Depending on the circumstances, electromagnetic radiation may behave as a wave or as particles. When EM radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor, travels along it, and induces an Electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting the electrons of the conducting material. This effect (the skin effect) is used in antennas.
Back to Basics
Electromagnetic Spectrum Its is the range of all possible frequencies of electromagnetic radiation. The
electromagnetic spectrum extends from below frequencies used for modern radio to gamma radiation at the shortwavelength end, covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometers down to a fraction of the size of an atom. The long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself, while it is thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.
Microwaves
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths ranging from as long as one meter to as short as one millimeter, or equivalently, with frequencies between 300MHz (0.3GHz) and 300GHz. Electromagnetic waves longer (lower frequency) than microwaves are called Radio waves".
Why Microwaves?
Microwave Frequencies are being heavily employed in todays world for a million different purposes. Some of the reasons which make Microwave ideal for employment in Human World are;
Microwave do not carry huge amounts of energy & therefore are far less harmful to humans than X-Rays, Gamma Rays etc. Microwave Frequencies fall below Visible Light spectrum & well above the Audible Sound levels & therefore can not be seen/ heard by human beings. Microwaves have ideal ratios of Frequency, Power Levels & Wavelengths which enable them to travel long distances while being less prone to Man made/ Machine made interference. Microwaves have enough penetration capability (Cm range) which enables them to pass through obstacles if they are not thick enough. Microwaves when directed (Focused), can provide an ideal Pointto-Point link & hence the extensive usage in Telecommunications.
Digital Modulation
Modulation
Modulation is the process of varying one or more properties (Amplitude, Frequency, Phase) of a high frequency periodic waveform, called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating signal. The aim of Modulation is to transfer a message signal (Baseband Signal, Digital Bit Stream) over a distance & be received at the Receiver Side of the Hop.
Analog Modulation
In analog modulation, the modulation is applied continuously in response to the analog information signal. Common analog modulation techniques are: Amplitude modulation (AM) (here the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal) Double-sideband modulation (DSB)
Double-sideband modulation with unsuppressed carrier (DSB-WC) (used on the AM radio broadcasting band) Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) Double-sideband reduced carrier transmission (DSB-RC)
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM) (here the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous frequency of the modulating signal)
Analog Modulation
Digital Modulation
In digital modulation, an analog carrier signal is modulated by a digital bit stream. Digital modulation methods can be considered as digital-to-analog conversion, and the corresponding demodulation or detection as analog-to-digital conversion. The changes in the carrier signal are chosen from a finite number of M alternative symbols (the modulation alphabet). These are the most fundamental digital modulation techniques: In the case of PSK, a finite number of phases are used. In the case of FSK, a finite number of frequencies are used. In the case of ASK, a finite number of amplitudes are used. In the case of QAM, a finite number of at least two phases, and at least two amplitudes are used.
Multiplexing
In Telecommunications Multiplexing is a process where multiple analog message signals or digital data streams are combined into one signal over a shared medium. The aim is to share an expensive resource. For example, in telecommunications, several phone calls may be transferred using one wire A multiplexing technique may be further extended into a multiple access method or channel access method, for example TDM into Time-division multiple access (TDMA) and statistical multiplexing into carrier sense multiple access (CSMA). A multiple access method makes it possible for several transmitters connected to the same physical medium to share its capacity.
Types of Multiplexing
The group of multiplexing technologies may be divided into several types, all of which have significant variations. Here are some of them; Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Types of Multiplexing
Multiplexing Hierarchies
The transmission of the frame is done row by row, from the left to right and top to bottom.
E-Carrier System
In digital telecommunications, where a single physical wire pair can be used to carry many simultaneous voice conversations by time-division multiplexing, worldwide standards have been created and deployed. E1 is such carrier system. E1 circuits are very common in most telephone exchanges and are used to connect to medium and large companies, to remote exchanges and in many cases between exchanges. An E1 link operates over two separate sets of wires, usually twisted pair cable. A nominal 3 Volt peak signal is encoded with pulses using a method that avoids long periods without polarity changes. The line data rate is 2.048 Mbit/s (full duplex, i.e. 2.048 Mbit/s downstream and 2.048 Mbit/s upstream) which is split into 32 timeslots, each being allocated 8 bits in turn. Thus each timeslot sends and receives an 8-bit PCM sample, usually encoded according to A-law algorithm, 8000 times per second (8 x 8000 x 32 = 2,048,000). This is ideal for voice telephone calls where the voice is sampled into an 8 bit number at that data rate and reconstructed at the other end. The timeslots are numbered from 0 to 31. One timeslot (TS0) is reserved for framing purposes, and alternately transmits a fixed pattern. This allows the receiver to lock onto the start of each frame and match up each channel in turn. The standards allow
E-Carrier System
One timeslot (TS16) is often reserved for signaling purposes, to control call setup and teardown according to one of several standard telecommunications protocols. This includes Channel Associated Signaling (CAS) where a set of bits is used to replicate opening and closing the circuit (as if picking up the telephone receiver and pulsing digits on a rotary phone), or using tone signaling which is passed through on the voice circuits themselves. More recent systems used Common Channel Signaling (CCS) such as ISDN or Signaling System 7 (SS7) which send short encoded messages with more information about the call including caller ID, type of transmission required etc. ISDN is often used between the local telephone exchange and business premises, whilst SS7 is almost exclusively used between exchanges and operators. Unlike the earlier T-carrier systems developed in North America, all 8 bits of each sample are available for each call. This allows the E1 systems to be used equally well for circuit switch data calls, without risking the loss of any information.
E-Carrier System
1. IF connector (to ODU) 2. 2Mbps interface (CH 9 to CH 16): impedance selector switch (75 or Port 1 and 3. LAN Interface for main traffic: 120 ohms) Port 2 4. WS/LAN: optional (Optional) port for Wayside In/Out or 10BaseT 5. NMS LAN: for PNMS with LAN interface 6. Engineers Orderwire (EOW): receptacle for EOW headset 7. CALL: call buzzer for calling the opposite site of the transmission path 8. RESET: CPU reset switch for IDU
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9. LED:
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PWR : that the power switch is on (Green) MAINT: for the purpose of maintenance (Yellow) ODU : that the ODU alarms occur (Red) IDU : that the IDU alarms occur (Red) 10. FG : connecting Frame Ground terminal
11. ESD: Connecting terminal for Electro Static Discharge 12. 2Mbps interface (CH 1 to CH 8) ): impedance selector switch (75 or 120 ohms) 13. ALM/AUX ALM: connector for parallel alarms (relay contact) connector for Data Input / Data Output
14. OW / DSC / ASC (1) Order wire (2) Digital and Analog (VF) service channel
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15. NMS / RA: for PNMS or remote access Local Craft Terminal (None PM Card) 16. LA Port: connector to PC for local access Local Craft Terminal or PNMT 17. Fuse: for primary DC line (be inserted in each plus and minus line) 18. 20SW : power switch 19. DC IN: connector for DC power in.
Rear Side
Front Side
IF connector to IDU
RX LEV MON
Gain of antenna
G0 = 10 lg[0.6(D / ) 2 ]
D: Diameter : Wavelength
More the Diameter, more is the Gain of Antenna. More the Diameter, more is the distance we can achieve in a hop.
Basic concept
Free Space Basic Transmission Loss
GTX
Power Level
GRX
P = TX Power
G = Antenna Gain A0 = Free Space Loss M = Fading Margin
PTX
A0 PRX M
Receiver Threshold
Distance
System Characteristics
Example
Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth (in KHz) and Capacity (bit-rate) Different frequency bands (channels) can be used to transmit information in parallel and independently.
High/ Low site High site: Transmit Frequency is higher than Receive Frequency. Low site: Transmit Frequency is lower than Receive Frequency.
Note: High Site and Low Site are forbidden at one BTS Site.
Interference:
Interference may be caused by another system on the same frequency range, external noise, or some other colocated system.
Fresnel Zone
Polarization
- The time varying direction and amplitude of the electric field vector of the electromagnetic (radio) wave - Point- to- point microwave paths can be either vertically or horizontally polarized - Vertical to horizontal isolation is about 30 dB
E E
Vertical polarization
Horizontal polarization
Vertical polarization
Horizontal polarization