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What is a polymer?
A long molecule made up from lots of small molecules called monomers.
monomer polymer
Copolymerisation
when more than one monomer is used.
An irregular chain structure will result eg propene/ethene/propene/propene/ethene Why might polymers designers want to design a polymer in this way?
(Hint) Intermolecular bonds!
Natural Polymers
Wool, cotton, linen, hair, skin, nails, rubber, and flesh are all naturally occurring polymers Most naturally polymers are made of protein or cellulose
Synthetic Polymers
Commonly referred to as plastics pliable, able to be moulded
Thermoplastics (80%)
No cross links between chains. Weak attractive forces between chains broken by warming. Change shape - can be remoulded. Weak forces reform in new shape when cold.
Thermoplastics
Those which soften on heating and then harden again on cooling These are called thermoplastic polymers because they keep their plastic properties These polymer molecules consist of long chains which have only weak bonds between the chains The bonds between the chains are so weak that they can be broken when the plastic is heated The chains can then move around to form a different shape The weak bonds reform when it is cooled and the thermoplastic material keeps its new shape
Thermosets
Extensive cross-linking formed by covalent bonds. Bonds prevent chains moving relative to each other. What will the properties of this type of plastic be like?
Thermosetting
Those which never soften once they have been moulded These are called thermosetting polymers because once set into a shape, that shape cannot be altered These polymer molecules consist of long chains which have many strong chemical bonds between the chains The bonds between the chains are so strong that they cannot be broken when the plastic is heated This means that the thermosetting material always keeps its shape
Addition Polymerisation
When ethene is subjected to high pressure it changes from a gas to a liquid Liquid ethene (still under high pressure) is heated in the presence of a catalyst (O2), an addition reaction takes place. For addition polymerisation to occur, the monomer must have a double C bond. This bond breaks to allow the long chains to form. Modifying ethene, substituting different functional groups for hydrogen atoms produces other monomers that can be polymerised to make polymers with different properties.
Addition polymerisation
Monomers contain C=C bonds Double bond opens to (link) bond to next monomer molecule Chain forms when same basic unit is repeated over and over. Modern polymers also developed based on alkynes R-C C - R
Addition Polymerisation
A carbon carbon double bond is needed in the monomer A monomer is the small molecule that makes up the polymer
H n
H H C C H H
n poly(ethene)
Addition Polymerisation
The polymer is the only product Involves the opening out of a double bond The conditions of the reaction can alter the properties of the polymer Reaction proceeds by a free radical mechanism Oxygen often used as the initiator
Addition polymerisation
H H C C H H H H H C C C C H H
Addition polymerisation
Conditions are high pressure and an oxygen initiator (to provide the initial free radical). Monomer = phenylethene Polymer = poly(phenylethene)
Atactic
Irregular points on both sides of the linear polymer Chains of molecules cannot get close together, therefore low density. Soft, waxy little use
Poly(propene)
This varying degree of randomness will affect the strength and melting point of the polymer. The less random, the stronger the polymer and the higher the melting point This is because in a more ordered polymer they chains can get closer together and hence the van der Waals forces will be greater.
Condensation Polymers
Condensation polymerisation uses monomers that have two functional groups per molecule. These are said to be difunctional. Polymerisation occurs when these monomers react head-to-tail to form a new bond that will eventually join the monomers together A small molecule (often water) is eliminated
Condensation Polymers
Suitable functional groups
-NH2 O amine O -OH alcohol
-C
OH
carboxyl
-C
Cl
acid chloride
Condensation Polymers
Involves 2 monomers that have different functional groups. They also involve the elimination of water or another small molecule. Hence the term condensation polymer. Monomer A + Monomer B Polymer + small molecule (normally water). Common condensation polymers include polyesters (the ester linkage) and polyamides (the amide linkage as in proteins). May be natural (protein, starch, cotton, wool, silk) or synthetic (viscose, nylon, polyester)
Polyesters
The OCR example here is terylene, a polymer of benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid and ethane-1,2-diol. The ester linkage is formed between the monomers
Polyesters
The structures of other polyesters
O n HO C O C OH + n HO CH2 CH2 OH heat with an acid catalyst O C O C O CH2 CH2 O n poly(ethan-1,2-diyl benzene-1,4-dicarboxylate)
Polyamides
These involve the linkage of two monomers through the amide linkage as in proteins (e.g. silk)
O (CH2)4 C
Kevlar a polyamide
O H2N NH2 C HO (CH2)4 C OH O
O C
Uses of polyamides
The main use of polyesters and polyamides is as fibres in clothing. Most clothing now has a degree of manufactured fibres woven into the natural material (such as cotton). This gives the material more desirable characteristics, such as stretchiness, and better washability. Dont forget that proteins are also polyamides, you must know how the linkage works with natural polymers such as proteins.
Addition Polymers
PVC, Teflon, Polystyrene
Addition Polymers
Ethene can be polymerised to produce both low and high density polyethene (commonly known as polyethylene)
LDPE produced with high temp and high pressure long side chains low density (plastic bags)
Soft, flexible and translucent with a waxy surface that repels water.
HDPE produced with lower temp and pressure very few short branches dispersion forces more effective high density (plastic bottles)
Rigid, stronger and more opaque than LDPE Slightly flexible, waxy surface that repels water
Addition Polymers
Rubber is an addition polymer that occurs naturally The monomer in natural rubber is isoprene. It polymerises to form long chains. Molecular formula (C5H8)n Rubber still contains double bonds which can be attacked by oxygen and can perish (unlike polythene)
Addition Polymers
Rubber
not elastic long chains straighten out when stretched and remain this way Susceptible to temperature changes brittle when cold and sticky when hot. Vulcanisation improved durability and elasticity of rubber.
The linear chains are cross linked using heat and sulfur
Condensation Polymers
Nylon
Can be extruded when molten to form fibres or sheets of strong, durable and elastic material Its invention had a great impact on the textile and clothing industries.
Condensation Polymers
Nylon 6 : 6
Nylon is a linear chain containing up to 100 repeated units. The name nylon 6 : 6 refers to the existence of 6 carbon atoms on each of the units
Condensation Polymers
PET plastic Polyethene terephthalate.
Soft drink bottles An example of a polyester Note the removal of H2O (condensation polymer)
Polymer Selection
Due to their versatility, polymers can be produced for almost any imagined purpose. A huge range of polymers exist today and are used for many different applications. Their versatility has made them one of them one of the most useful classes of substances that we rely on in todays society. This versatility can be attributed to the many different ways that they can be modified
Recycling
Most plastics are produced from crude oil, coal or gas. Many of them are not biodegradable and have become a visible part of our environmental litter.