When we hear the word economics many things

come to our mind, like money supply and demand curves, lending and borrowing money at some agreed interest rate, factories with production schedules, labour domestic products. We found all these words in book but not in all cultures of the world e.g. in small scale societies you wont find standardized currency, stock exchange or factories. But common challenges to cultures: limited amount of vital resources like land, livestock, food and labour

Difference of Economics and Economic Anthropology The science of Economics focuses on how production, distribution and consumption occur mostly with in industrialized world whereas the Economic Anthropology looks at the system of production, distribution and consumption comparatively in all societies of the world industrialized as well as non-industrialized.

Cross Cultural Examination of Economic Systems

Despite the substantial differences of economic systems found throughout the world--- it is possible to examine economic systems cross culturally along certain key dimensions:
1)

The regulation of resources: how land, water and natural resources are controlled and allocated Production: how material resources are converted in useable commodities Exchange: how the commodities, once produced are distributed among the people of the society

2)

3)

The Allocation of Natural Resources

Every society has access to certain resources in its

territorial environment, including land, animals, water, minerals and plants. Even though the nature and amount of resources vary widely from one group to another, every society has developed a set of rules governing the allocation of resources and how they can be used e.g. all societies have developed systematic ways of allocating land among their members

Food Collectors In most food-collecting societies land is not owned in the Western sense of the term, either individually or collectively There are number of reasons
Must follow the migratory patterns of animals Claiming and defending a particular piece of land requires

time, energy and technology which usually such societies do not have or not choose to expand.
Avoid conflicts who may violate territorial boundaries

Pastoralists For pastoralists, it is necessary that they access to two vital resources for the livestock: water and pasturage Depending upon the natural environment the availability of these two resources vary widely In these are in a shortage the move in wider range of area and having lesser occupation of land Whereas in areas where these are in greater amount people tend to own land more and control resources

Horticulturists
Unlike food collectors and pastoralists,

Horticulturalists tend to live on land that is communally controlled usually by an extended kinship group. Individual nuclear or polygamous families may be granted the use of land by the extended families for growing crops but rights are limited. (they can use the
land as long as they stay there but cannot sell the land)

Horticulturalists may use the land according to the

will of larger group in some cases As they are mostly shifting cultivators there will be no use of claiming the lands rights

Intensive Agriculturists
In Pakistan and North America resources are

allocated on the basis of principle of private individual ownership When we say we own a piece of land we have the absolute and exclusive rights to it. So we can sell, rent, give away, gift or trade etc.

Production
The initial step in meeting the needs of any society

is to establish a system of allocating the right to use resources to certain people. In rare situation however resources may be used in exactly yhe same way they are found in nature. Animals must be butchered, grains must be ground and cooked, metal ores must be mined, smelted, combined with other elements and crafted before use and stoned must be shaped before putting in to walls.

 The process of obtaining goods from the natural

environment and transforming them into useable objects is called production All humans must meet certain fundamental material needs (such as water, food and shelter) but how theses needs are satisfied vary from society to society.
Hunting and gathering (Siriono of eastern Bolivia) Products of livestock (Maasai of east Africa) Complex system engaging technology and

industrialization

 The factors determining the list of products any

society produces are

Accessibility of certain resources Technology available to process the resources The abundance of energy supplies The role culture plays influencing the production in a

society

India --- despite the plenty of supply of cows Hindus refuse to eat beef Pakistan --- Muslims do not opt to eat ham despite it is full of proteins

Units of Production
The systems of production in all cultures is

systematic, organized and patterned unlike other parts of the culture Every society breaks up its members into some type of productive unit comprising people with specific tasks to perform In industrialized societies like USA, UK or semi industrialized societies like us production unit is private company that produces goods & services. These private firms range from small, individually owned operations to gigantic multinational corporations.

Production in Household (HH)

In most non industrialized societies, the basic unit of

production is the HH In these small scale societies most if not all the goods and services consumed are produced by the members of HH The household may be comprised of nuclear family or a more elaborate family structure containing married siblings, multiple wives, and more than two generations
HH may include non relatives some times Some relatives may not live with HH but do contribute to its

economic well being while living in other areas

Difference between household and business firm

1. Business firm is primarily if not exclusively just a unit of

production but HH performs a number of overlapping functions

E.g. when two kinsmen who part of the same HH threshing

wheat, it is very likely that they play a number of other roles together like one man may be because of age a religious leader, other may be political leader because of his leadership skill or they may share their leisure time

2. Structural difference between household (HH) and business

firm is that HH is far more self-sufficient

In most cases, the members of HH in small scale societies

members do not have to go outside the group to satisfy their material needs People in business firm have to rely on people outside the business firm e.g. butcher, barber, schoolteacher etc.

3.

Business firm concentrates exclusively on economic function thus is more productive

A family HH other than the economic well being of its members also needs to consider the psychological, emotional, social requirements thus putting some of its resources on non productive functions.

Division of labour
The set rules found in all societies dictating how day to day tasks are assigned to the various members of societies
Every society large or small distinguishes to some degree

between the work appropriate for men and women or adults and children. All societies make such distinctions on the basis of
Age and Gender

Gender Specialization
Although some roles (jobs) found in the world are

performed by both men and women many other are associated with one gender or other
E.g. women generally tend crops, gather wild foods, care for

children, prepare food, cleans houses, fetch water etc

Men on the other hand are more found in hunt, build houses, clear

land for cultivation, herd large animals, fish and serve as political functionaries.
We can find exceptions like in traditional Africa, for example

women are known to carry much havier loads than men, work long hours in the fields and even serve as warriors.

Explanations regarding Gender Specialization

1. Men have greater body mass and strength they are better

equipped physically to engage in hunting warfare and land clearing 2. Women do the things they do because those tasks are compatible with child care i.e. unlike many males tasks such as hunting & warfare womens tasks are easily interrupted and can be accomplished without jeopardizing the childs safety and without leaving home 3. Women have limited reproductive capacities than man they are less likely to be required to be engaged in dangerous situations
If men risk their lives in hunting buffalos ans whales reproduction in the group will not be suffered provided women have access to men

Age Specialization
Societies also allocate tasks to its members on the basis of age Because of their lack of knowledge and physical strength,

children are often excluded from jobs

In Pakistan formal education lasts till late teen years so people

studying are not involved in much productive work mostly in urban areas While in non industrialized areas children get involved in productive work from considerably earlier age

In older age too certain hard and more strength demanding

works are refused in comparison to less energy requiring work

Tiwi of north Australia old men preferred to stay at home and

produced tools for hunting rather going out for hunting

Aged people also found in religious roles in societies like ours.

Distribution of Goods and Services

Once produced, goods are needed to be in peoples hand to be

consumed. People consume goods they produce but often surpluses remain. Systems for exchange not only help people in disposing off their surplus goods but also maximizes the diversity of goods and services produced Three major ways of distribution:
Reciprocity Redistribution

Market exchange

Reciprocity
A mode of distribution characterized by the exchange of goods and services of approximately equal value between parties
Generalized Reciprocity

A practice usually played out among family members or close friends, carries with highest level of moral obligation. Most of the times people do not expect favours in return in such cases e.g. parent children relationship

Balanced Reciprocity
Is a form of exchange involving the expectation that goods & services of equivalent value will be returned in a specified period of time. This involves more formal relationships, greater social distance and stronger obligation to repay the original gift Silent trade: in the Semang of Malay Peninsula people avoid face to face interaction while exchanging their goods to avoid conflicts

Negative Reciprocity

A form of economic exchange between individuals who try to take advantage of each other e.g. cheating, theft Sense of altruism and social obligation at lowest and personal gains at highest so such exchange is usually practices with strangers or enemies.

Redistribution
A form of economic exchange in which goods and services are

given by members of a group to a central authority (such as chief ) and then distributed back to the donors usually in form of feast
Chiefly redistribution (definition from notes) Big Men/Feast Givers (definition from notes) Bridewealth (definition from notes)

Market Exchange
A form of distribution in which goods and services are bought and sold and their value is determined by the basis of principle of demand and supply Standardized Currency
A commonly found trait of market economies is the use of standardized

currency (money) for the exchange of goods and services

Money can be defined as the generally accepted medium of exchange that

also measures the value of a particular item.

Flexible system more than directly exchanging of goods with one an other Divisible money can be divided into multiple to any extent while we cant doo it with goods or services Easy to carry its easier to carry a bag of coins than herd of camels

 All societies if they are to remain viable over time must

maintain social order. Every society must develop a set of customs and procedures for making and enforcing decisions, resolving conflicts, and regulating the behavior of its members. Every society must make collective decisions about its environment and its relations with other societies and about how to deal with disruptive or destructive behavior on the part of its members
Political leaders Law Enforcement Bodies Complex Bureaucracies Formal Judicial System Political parties

 These mechanisms are used in our society for making and

enforcing political decisions as well as coordinating and regulating peoples behaviors.

Many societies of the world have none of these systems but they

have other formal mechanisms to deal with all these issues.

Types of Political Organization

The term political organization refers to the way in which power is distributed within a society so as to control peoples behaviors and maintain social control.

Societies all over the world differ in their political

organization and based on the following three important dimensions

The extent to which political institutions are distinct from other

aspects of the social structure i.e. for example in some societies, political structure is barely distinguishable from economic, kinship or religious structures The extent to which the political authority (consult reference reading for definition) is concentrated into political roles The level of political integration (consult reference reading for definition) i.e. the size of the territorial group that comes under the control of the political structures

Types of societies on the basis of political basis

Band Societies Tribal Societies

Cheifdoms
State Societies

Band Societies
It is least complex form of political organization Such societies usually contain small and nomadic populations of

food collectors Although the size of a band can range anywhere from twenty to several hundred individuals, most band numbers between thirty to fifty people. The actual size of a band is directly related to food gathering methods, i.e. the more food a band has at its disposal, the larger the number of people it can support. The concept of ownership of resources is little and people tend to share, cooperate and reciprocate Little division of labour and highly egalitarian as there is not much difference of status and wealth is observed It is thought to be the oldest form of political organization Example of band socieities: Ju/hoansi of Kalahari desert

Traits of Band Societies

1.

Band societies are composed of relatively small number of people who are related by blood or marriage; a high value is placed on getting on with one an other Whatever conflicts arise within the group are often settled informally by direct negotiation. In unlikely events, where a just resolution of a conflict can not be reached, the dissatisfied party has the options to leave the band and join an other band where he has relatives. Band societies have least amount of political integration; various band are independent and ar not part of the larger political structure. The basis of integration is marriage and blood ties.

2.

Traits of Band Societies

3.

4.

In band societies political decisions are often embedded in the larger social structure Because bands are composed of kin, it is difficult to distinguish between purely political decisions and those that we recognize as economic family or religious ones. Political life in other words is just a part of social life. Informal Leadership role in band societies No specialized political roles or leaders with designated authority. Leaders are often older men respected for their experience, wisdom, good judgment and knowledge Most decisions are made through discussion by old men but headman cannot impose his decision Wrong or un popular decision, band members look for new headman

Tribal Societies
Unlike band societies, tribal societies are usually found among food

producers (horticulturists and pastoralists) Due to animal and plant domestication, food is in surplus so populations are denser, larger and more sedentary in nature. Similarities among tribal and band societies
Both are egalitarian as there are no marked difference in status, rank,

power and wealth. Local leaders but not centralized leadership. A man is recognized as a leader by virtue of certain personality traits like wisdom, integrity, intelligence and concern for the welfare of others. Leaders play a central role in decision making in tribal societies but they cannot force the decisions upon the group and decision come through group consensus.

 Pan Tribal Mechanism

Pan tribal mechanisms cut across and integrate all of the local segments

of the tribe into a larger whole. They include tribal associations such as clans, age grades or secret societies The purpose of these mechanisms is to unite the tribe against external threats but they are not a permanent political feature however. Most of the time local units of tribe functions autonomously these systems only work when there is a external threat When the external threat vanishes the tribes go back to their autonomous state Even though these pan tribal mechanisms may be transitory, they nevertheless provide the wider political integration in certain situations than would never be possible in band societies.

Clan
The clan is group of kin who consider themselves to be descended from a

common ancestors, even though the individuals clan members cannot trace step by step their connection to the clan founder. Clan elders though not holding formal political offices usually manage the affairs of their clans e.g. settling disputes between clan members or representing their clans while dealing with other clans

Usually the term tribe carried the negative connotation with it

in the past, mostly synonym of uncivilized But this image was created in the time of colonialism, because of the warfare by tribal societies The studies showed that the phenomenon of warfare mostly absent in pre-colonialism, was caused by the process of colonialism Anthropologists do not relate anything negative with the term tribe, rather they consider them a group of ethnically homogenous people capable of coordinating political action, yet lacking the centralized leadership.

Chiefdoms
The societies which are complex, with larger and more specialized

populations, more sophisticated technology and growing surplus food, need more formal and permanent political structures. In such societies known as chiefdoms, political authority is likely to reside with a single individual, acting alone or in conjunction with an advisory council. Chiefdom differs from band and tribal societies in a way that it integrates a number of local communities in a more formal and permanent way. Chiefdoms are made of local communities which differ from each other in rank and status. Based on their genealogical proximity with the chief the nobles and the commoners hold different level of prestige and power. Chiefships are often hereditary and the chief and the close kin of his/her constitute a social and higher elite.

 Chiefs being the central and permanent official hold higher rank,

power and authority than other in the society. Chief usually make judgments, punish the wrongdoers, and settle disputes to minimize the internal disruption. Also chiefs usually distributes land to loyal subjects, recruit people in military and laborers for public work projects. Chiefs are also related to the economic activities of their subjects through redistributive system of economics Subjects give surplus food to chief which is then redistributed among subjects through communal feasts and doles. This is serves not only the economic function of ensuring that no people in the society go hungry but also gives a chance to the subjects of expressing their loyalty and support to the chief.

Example of Chiefdom

The pre-colonial Hawaiian political system of the 18th century

embodied the features of a typical chiefdom. Three strata in the society: at the apex; Alii, major chiefs perceived the direct descendants of gods, their close relative served as advisors and bureaucrats under them. Second echelons, known as konohiki, were less important cheifs who were often distant relatives of Alii Finally great majority of people was commoners known as Makaainana. The society was castelike due to little or no intermarriage among these three strata But because the Alii had certain priestly functions due to their connections with gods, Hawaiian society was theocracy as well

State Societies
The most complex and most formal system of political organization. State: can be defined as a hierarchical form of political organization that

governs many communities within a large geographical area. States collect taxes, recruit labor for armies and civilian public work projects and have a monopoly on the right to use force. There are large bureaucratic organizations made up of permanent institutions with legislative, administration and judiciary. Whereas band societies have political structures on the kinship basis, state system of organization organize their power on a supra-kinship basis i.e. a persons membership in a state is based on his or her place of birth and citizenship rather than on kinship affiliation. Over the past several thousands years state system of government has taken several including Greek city-state, the far reaching Roman empire, African states like Bunyaro, Buganda, and the Swazi, theocratic states like ancient Egypt, modern nation states like Japan, Canada, United State and Pakistan

Important Foundations for States Authority

First, the state holds the exclusive right to use force and physical

coercion. Any act of violence not expressly permitted by the state is illegal and consequently punishable by the state Thus state governments make written laws, administer them through various level of mechanism of bureaucracies and enforce them through agencies like police forces, armies and national guards. The state needs to be continuously vigilant of the threats within and without to usurp its power through rebellions and revolutions. Second the state maintains its authority by means of ideology. For the state to maintain its power over the long run, there must be a philosophical understanding among the citizenry that the state has the legitimate right to govern In the absence of such an ideology, it is often difficult for the state to maintain its authority by means of coercion alone.

State Societies and Civilization

State system first appeared about 5500 years ago are closely associated

with the rise of civilization, thus they are found in societies with complex socioeconomic characteristics Such systems required intensive agriculture system in them to support a large umber of bureaucrats who are not producing. This fully efficient food-production system gives rise to cities, considerable labor specialization and a complex system of internal distribution and foreign trade. As food and resources are not distributed equally among the all segments of society, so such societies are stratified i.e. land and capital tend to be concentrated with elite, who in turn uses wealth and power to control the rest of the population. Moreover the fairly complex laws and regulations needed to control a large and heterogeneous population give rise to the need for some writing, record keeping, and a system of weights and measures.

Social Control
Mechanism found in all societies that function to encourage people not to violate social norms Every society has to make sure that most of its members behave themselves in appropriate ways most of the times. State like societies like our own have a variety of formalized ways like written laws, judiciary, prisons, and police forces. But not all societies maintain the social control among themselves in the same ways. In fact people deviate from acceptable behavior more in formalized and complex societies than in simple societies. Every society has defined what it considers normal, proper or expected ways of behaving These expectations known as social norms serve as behavioral guidelines that help the society work smoothly. but the social norms are also not followed all the times by people

 Social scientists use the term deviance to refer the violation of

social norms Deviance is a relative term as what is considered deviated in one society might completely normal in other society. Example of sacrificing cows in Pakistan and India All social norms are sanctioned either positive or negative Positive sanctions range from a smile of approval to being awarded medal of honor in public (rewards) Negative sanctions include every thing from a frown of disapproval to the death penalty (punishments) Social sanctions are formal and informal E.g. telling a lie and breaking some law

Informal means of social control

Socialization
Every society must pass on its social rules and norms from one generation

to another for it survival It seems obvious that people can not confirm to the social norms unless they learn them. Thus all societies some systems of socialization, which involves teaching the young what the norms are and they should not be violated. People learn the social norms with certain degree of moral compulsion People internalize the social norms so effectively that people never consider violating them e.g. wearing cloths. Some societies tend to be very permissive in the process of socialization while others use some form of corporal punishments as a child-training techniques

Informal means of social control

Public opinion
On of the most compelling reasons for not violating the social norms is

public opinion or social pressure People wish to be appreciated by other members of society and fear of being rejected and criticized by their friends and neighbors Societies use social pressure (strategic embarrassment) very deliberately to keep people in line. Indeed gossip, ostracism, rumors, sarcasm, and derision are powerful corrective measures for reforming social behavior. Publishing list of tax defaulters or exit control list In some societies when some one strays too far from acceptable behavior the group takes very explicit action to indelibly brand that person as deviant e.g. military officers found guilty in a court martial are often ceremoniously stripped off their insignia of rank in a public display of humiliation. Harold Garfinkle (1956) has used the term degradation ceremonies to refer to these formal societal mechanisms to publicly humiliate a deviant.

Corporate Lineage
Corporate lineages mean kinship groups whose members

engage in daily activities together Property is controlled by the lineage, people derive their primary identity from the group and even religion in some cases is a lineage matter Acting like a small corporation, the lineage has a powerful impact on the everyday lives of its members and can exert considerable pressure on people to confirm to the social norms One of the means by which a corporate lineage exerts control over its members is economic All important property like live stock and land is controlled by the elders of the lineage. Often the property is allocated on the basis of conformity of social norms People following social norms get best part of land and live stocks but other wise deviant may loose such valuable resources

 Corporate lineage to some degree also act as mechanism of

social control because of their scale. Corporate lineage serve as localized communities numbering from several hundreds to several thousands relatives. Because of the intense and frequent interaction among these relative it is virtually impossible to maintain anonymity for any wrong or deviant deed The nature of role structure in a corporate lineage is based on diffused roles People may play a number of social roles simultaneously like kinship, economic, political, ritual/religious, or recreational. People in the corporate lineage societies (with diffuse or overlapping roles) have a built-in incentive not to violate the social norms, for to do so would have very serious consequences if a man offends his elders, he is not only negatively affecting his kinship domain but also affecting many other domains of social life like educational, economic, political, and religious

 Marriage also plays an important role in controlling the

peoples behavior socially. As marriages are considered an alliance between families rather just two individuals In many cases the marriage is legitimized by bridewealth which is from family of groom to brides family in form of live stocks or land A man wants to marry and does not has control over property, so if he has to provide 8 cows as bridewealth he might has to convince 8 relatives. Any person who has a fame as deviant, might not get this opportunity, so people behave themselves according to social norms

Supernatural Belief System

Belief in supernatural forces like gods, witches and sorcerers may

help in people behavior People will refrain from anti social behaviors if they believe that some supernatural force will punish them for it. Believes like judgment day, angles, hell and heaven encourage and discourage people to motivate and avoid from certain actions

Age organization
A type of social organization, found in East Africa and among Native

American groups, where in people of roughly same age pass through different levels of society together. Each ascending level, based on age carries with it increased social status and rigidly defined roles
Age set: a group roughly the same age who pass through various age

grades together Age grades: Permanent age categories in a society through which people pass during the course of lifetime

Formal Means of Social Control

All societies use informal means of social control but in some

cases these informal mechanisms are not sufficient to keep people confirming the social norms as desired. The violation of social norms often results in disputes among society members When these disputes become violent conflict e.g. theft, assault or homicide we call them crime Although no society is crime free but the degree of crime in different societies varies It appears that crime is more likely to appear in large heterogeneous stratifies societies than in small scale societies

 Several logical arguments support these findings: First as mentioned in corporate lineage it is hard for people

to maintain their anonymity after wrong done but in a large city it is easy Second as in small scale societies mostly people know each other they are most like to be concerned about the negative public opinion people around them Third in a large heterogeneous society there will be more and different groups often with conflicting interests Fourth the fact that people in a large scale society are mostly divided in to strata which might make them feel under privileged and blocked towards upward moving, so they are likely to violate the rights of those in the more privileged strata

Song Duels
As societies differ in the incidence of crime they also differ in handling the

disputes among people. A unique example of solving disputes was found among Inuit of Canada, Alaska and Greenland Disputes among Inuit rarely arose due to the property rights violation due to their nomadic way of life but the conflicts used to happen du to wife stealing. A man would attempt to steal the wife of a more prominent man in order to elevate his standing in that society A common way to resolve this conflict was to murder the wife stealer but there were alternatives Song duel is one of the alternative ways in which alleged wife stealer was challenged to duel in which was fought through songs and lyrics rather weapons The plaintiff and defendant appearing in the public setting would chide each other with abusive songs especially composed for the occasion The one who receives the loudest applause emerged as winner of this curse by verse song duel Interestingly the resolution of the conflict was based not on a determination of guilt or innocence but ones verbal dexterity

Intermediaries
Some societies use intermediaries to help resolve the conflicts The Nuer of the African Sudan are a case in point Although the Nuer political system is informal but role of the Leopard

Skin Chief (LSC) to some degree is institutionalized In absence of law courts, for serious crimes like murder, the Leopard Skin Chief serves as a mediator between conflicting parties The murderer takes refuge in the house of Chief, and the chief to avoid an all-out feud tries to settle the quarrel between families The murderers family tries to compensate victims family with some property settlements likes camels or any other valuables This is used as bridewealth to obtain a wife for one member of victims family and the sons as result of such marriage will fill the void left by murderer's family The chief can threaten any unsatisfied party to curse but he does not decide the case however. He acts as intermediary with authority to determine the guilty and forces the decision. He some times uses his personal and supernatural influence help the parties settle the disputes

Moots: Informal Courts

Moots are the informal airings of the disputes involving kinsmen and

friends of the litigants These adjudicating bodies are ad hoc and their composition varies from case to case They generally deal the cases like mistreating the spouses, disagreement on inheritance and non payment of debts etc. Punchaiyat and Jirga system in our culture are examples of moots

Oaths and Ordeals

Another way of resolving conflicts when government systems are not very

strong is through religious sanctioned method known as oaths and ordeals An oath is a formal declaration to some supernatural power that what you are saying is truthful or that you are innocent. The oaths often accompany with some ritual act like smoking the holy pipe, singing the loyalty document or swearing the on the book of Bible or Quraan As people believe that to swear a false oath could lead to supernatural retribution, oaths can be effective in determining guilt or innocence.

 An ordeal is a means of determining guilt by submitting the accused to

a dangerous test If the persons passes the test, it is believed that a higher supernatural force has determined the partys innocence; if he or she fails, the gods have signaled the partys guilt. Putting hand in hot and cold water, walking on through the fire are examples of ordeal This may look mystical to people steeped into physical science but there is often more information being gathered then meets the untrained eye During the explanation about the ordeals the body language and the signs of excessive anxiety like muscle tension, perspiration or dilation of the pupils are examined On the basis of the such assessment the authorities conducting the ordeal may change the factors affecting the results of ordeal like length of time of ordeal Ordeal may be found in societies where political leadership lacks the authority to enforce the judicial decisions, so they rely on supernaturally sanctioned mechanisms to make certain people will obey

Courts and Codified Law

A government in a state system posses the monopoly over the use of force Through a system of codified law, state both forbids individuals from

using force and determines how it will use force to require citizen to do some thing and not to do others The usually written laws are established through legislative bodies, interpreted by judicial bodies and enforced by administrators When laws are violated states have authority to fine, imprison and even execute the wrong doers through its courts and law enforcing agencies States through courts and law enforcing agencies tries to punish the wrong doers and hey do not try to reintegrate them back into the community.

 As societies have ways to control behavior of its members internally,

Warfare

they do have mechanisms to regulate behaviors of people outside the groups, be they states, tribes, bands, clans, and lineages One of such mechanisms of social control outside ones group or society is warfare Warfare may be defined as a systematic, organized, and institutionalized fight between different groups People might be less involved in anti social and aggressive behavior if they expect an attack by outside forces due to such behavior The scale of use of warfare in different societies varies a lot. It is thought that warfare in the history of mankind started with the invention of food production There are a number of reasons for foraging societies not to indulge in warfare First they had no centralized governments that could finance and coordinate the large number of people needed for military campaigns Second the absence of food surpluses precluded prolong combat

 Third, because foraging societies did not occupy land and resources one of

the major motivation for warfare did not exist Fourth because foraging societies are small in scale (usually composed of exogamous bands), people are not likely to become hostile towards other bands into which their own relatives have married Causes of warfare Social Problem: Political leaders may turn the societys frustrations towards another group due to internal problems. The outsiders may be portrayed as having more than their shred of scarce resources or even causing social problems. It matters little if this type of blaming is justified, what is important the people are convinced that other group is cause of their problems. Perceived threats: In some cases societies will go to war when they think their security or well being is in jeopardy. (USA attack on Iraq and Afghanistan) Political motivation: sometimes governments will wage war for the purpose for furthering their own political objectives. The event of Lal Masjid and South Waziristan in Pakistan are the examples Moral objectives: all wars in the human history have been wages with some kind of moral urgency. Those who commit their soldiers to war justify their action on some moral grounds. Islamic and European crusades

Basic Concepts about Sex and Gender

Sex (Sexual Dimorphism):
It refers to the physiological differences between men and women

Gender:
The way members of the two sexes are perceived, evaluated and

expected to behave in a particular society

Masculinity:
The social definition of maleness which varies from society to

society

Femininity:
The social definition of femaleness which varies from society to

society

Gender Roles:
Expected ways of behaving based on a societys definition of

masculinity and femininity

 Gender Stratification: A division of society where all members are hierarchically ranked according to gender Gender Ideology: A system of thoughts and values that legitimizes sex roles, status and customary behavior Male Gender Bias A preference found in sons societies for sons rather than daughters Female infanticide: The killing of female children Nutritional deprivation: A form of child abuse involving withholding food; can retard learning, physical development or social adjustment

 Honor Killing A tradition found in many countries of the world including Middle eastern countries, India and Pakistan. Women who are thought to dishonor their families by loosing their chastity are killed by the men of her family. Dowry Death: The killing of women by her in-laws if the womans parent fail to pay dowry according to the demands of husbands family

Dimensions of Social Inequality

According to Max Webber (1946) the basic criteria for

measuring levels of social inequality is:

Wealth

Power
Prestige

Wealth
People in a society may be differentiated on the basis of possession of

material or economic resources or wealth. The definition of wealth may vary from society to society: for a Mexican farmer wealth is land; in the Samburu of East Africa the wealth man is determined on the basis of number of cows one has; and in Pakistan an individual would be wealthy if s/he has handsome bank balance, liquid cash, property, stocks and prize bonds etc. Economic inequality also differs also differs in its prevalence from one society to another i.e. primitive societies seem to be equal with regards to distribution of wealth while complex societies more unequal in relation to the distribution of wealth

Power
Power may be defined as the ability to achieve ones goals and

objectives eve against the will of others. OR the capacity to produce intended effects on oneself, other people, social situations, or the environment. Power is often closely correlated with wealth; in our society and western world economic resources helps in gaining power. But power and wealth do not necessarily overlap. In certain parts of the world power may be based on factors other than wealth like possession of specialized knowledge, eloquence as a speaker. According to democratic ideology power is in hand of people. We exercise our power by voting for out political representative who see to it that our will is carried out. This works in theory but in real life picture is different. Some social scientists (Hellinger and Judd, 1991) believe that power lies with an unofficial power elite. C. Wright Mills said in 1950s that power concentrates in the hands of power elite comprising government, military and corporate.

Prestige
Prestige is social esteem, respect or admiration that a society confers

on people. Because favorable social evaluation is based on the norms and values of a particular group, sources of prestige vary from culture to another. For example a cricketer in Pakistan or India, an old man in age graded societies like Samburu of Kenya, and prestige is also attached with certain professions in different societies. The professions of physicians, corporate presidents, scientists ad top ranking government officials enjoy high levels of occupational prestige in the society of USA (research conducted by Hodge, Trieman, and Rossi 1966, Coleman and Rainwater 1978, Nakao and Treas 1990, and National Opinion Research Center 1996) The ranking stands same for the last 50 years and surprisingly this ranking also applies on other countries of the world. There are four factors separating the top ranked professions from bottom ranked ones: higher level of salaries, requiring more education, greater autonomy (less supervision), requiring more abstract thinking and less physical labor

Types of Societies
Most of the anthropologists distinguish societies on the basis of social

inequality.
Egalitarian Societies Rank Societies Stratifies Societies

Egalitarian Societies In these societies no group or individual has appreciably more wealth, power or prestige than any other. The difference in personal skills is acknowledged but individuals are not able to transform these skills into wealth or prestige. No matter how much or how little respect an individual in a egalitarian society may have but he or she is neither denied the right to practice a certain profession nor subject to control of others. Particular examples of egalitarian societies are Ju /hoansi of the Kalahari desert, the Inuit, and the Hadza of Tanzania

 There are number of reasons, why unequal access to wealth, power

and prestige is discouraged.

First the very nature of nomadic life inhibits the accumulation of large

possession Foragers do not hold claims to territory, individuals may forage in what ever territory they wish, if some one holds the control over a certain geographic area, the other may move to another areas Finally food collectors tends to egalitarian because sharing tend to maximize their chances of adaptation