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The Basic Functions of Organisms

1) Organization - multicellular 2) Responsiveness 3) Growth - cell number, size, or amount of substances (nutrients/fat deposition) 4) Development and differentiation - shift from generalized cells to specialized cells 5) Reproduction 6) Metabolism and Excretion (rid of waste products)

Anatomy
Greek:
-ana (apart) -tome (to cut/dissection)

The study of the structure of a living organism


Without knowledge of the anatomy of the body and cell structure, this course will be much more difficult

The Specialties of Anatomy


Gross Anatomy
Surface anatomy Regional anatomy Systemic anatomy Developmental anatomy

Microscopic anatomy
Cytology Histology

Anatomical Variation
No two humans are exactly alike
70% most common structure 30% anatomically variant variable number of organs
missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries

variation in organ locations situs solitus situs inversus (things are flipped) dextrocardia

Physiology
The branch of knowledge which studies how structures of a living organism function in order to maintain life

function is an aspect of structure


Function is the how and why of the system or event

Approaches to Physiology
Teleological approach
Is thinking about the why
Why do RBCs transport oxygen?
because cells need oxygen and RBCs bring it to them

Mechanistic approach
Thinking about physiological processes are the how
How do RBCs transport oxygen?
Oxygen binds to hemoglobin molecules contained in RBCs

The Specialties of Physiology


Cell physiology Special physiology
( e.g. cardio physiology )

Systemic physiology
(e.g. cardiovascularPhysiology)

Pathological physiology

Physiological Variation
Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity Typical physiological values
reference male
22 years old, 154 lbs, light physical activity consumes 2800 kcal/day

reference female
same as male except 128 lbs and 2000kcal/day

Overmedication of eldery

Organ systems
Systems ( 11 )
Integumentary, Nervous, Skeletal, Endocrine, Muscular, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Urinary, Respiratory, Digestive, Reproductive

Organs
Heart, lung, pancreas, stomach, brain, etc.

Organization of the Human Body


Chemical
Molecules : Complex proteins comprised of atoms (DNA) Atoms Comprised of many macromolecular complexes The most basic functional unit of any multicellular organism

Cellular Tissues

Comprised of various cell types Connective, muscle, nervous, epithelium


Contain various tissue types Cardiovascular, respiratory, integumentary, etc. Homo sapiens

Organ Organ systems

Organism

Levels of Organization

Homeostasis
The process of maintaining a relatively constant internal environment within an organism
(body temperature, heart rate , blood glucose levels, etc..)

Set Point

Normal Range

Time Loss of homeostatic control

Equilibrium
A state of rest or equal balance
All biologic phenomena act to adjust: there are no biologic actions other than adjustments. Adjustment is another name for equilibrium. Equilibrium is the universal, or that which has nothing external to derange it.
Charles Fort

Homeostasis does not mean equilibrium when concerned with the entire body i.e. the ECF and ICF usually exist in a state that might be best called a dynamic disequilibrium

Most cells are in contact with the ECF

Homeostasis and Controls


External or internal Physiological attempt to correct occurs
sensors detect Integrating center process Response of cells and organs occur

Successful compensation
homeostasis reestablished

Failure to compensate
Pathophysiology
illness/disease death

Mechanisms for Homeostasis


Mechanisms which maintain system close to set point
Autoregulation (intrinsic regulation) constant blood flow regardless of BP Ex: renal system Extrinsic regulation - thermoregulation (behavioral)

Homeostatic regulation involves


A receptor ( input signal) A control center An effector ( output/efferent signal)

Homeostasis is mediated by the Control center

Tonic Activity

Negative Feedback

Response

Primary mechanism for homeostasis!

Decrease stimulus

Negative Feedback: The Control of Body Temperature

NOT homeostatic equilibrium, but instead an Unstable equilibrium

Response

More stimulus

Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting


Positive feedback control- mechanisms which drive systems farther from set point
usually leads away from homeostasis and can result in death e.g. uterine contractions during childbirth orgasm

blood clotting

Harmful Positive Feedback Loop


Fever >140 degrees F
metabolic rate increases body produces heat even faster body temperature continues to rise further increasing metabolic rate

Cycle continues to reinforce itself Becomes fatal at 113 degrees F


Damage to brain occurs around 107 degrees F

Homeostatic Control
Body predicts that a change is about to occur and starts the response in of the change e.g. salivation

Development of the Cell Theory


Cytology scientific study of cells
began when Robert Hooke coined the word, cellulae to describe empty cell walls of cork

Theodore Schwann concluded, about two centuries later, that all animal tissues are made of cells Louis Pasteur established beyond any reasonable doubt that cells arise only from other cells
refuting the idea of spontaneous generation living things arise from non-living matter

Modern Cell Theory emerges from this


3-25

The Cell Theory


1) Cells are the building blocks of all plants and animals 2) Cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells 3) Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions 4) Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level
- Homeostasis at higher levels reflects combined, coordinated action of many cells

The Cell
Please review the function of organelles in Fig 3.4 Cilia cilia Cytoplasm cytoplasm

microvilli Microvilli
Secretory vesicles Smooth ER Golgi apparatus

mitochondria Mitochondrion Rough ER Rough ER


Nucleus nucleus Cell membrane Cell membrane

Cytoskeleton

A typical cell
Is surrounded by extracellular fluid, which is the interstitial fluid of the tissue Has an outer boundary called the cell membrane, plasma membrane, or plasmalemma

Cell Membrane
Where does most physiology occur?
Cell membrane

Cell membrane composition


Lipids phospholipid bilayer Cholesterol Carbohydrates (sugars) Proteins

Cell membrane

Cell membrane functions


1.Forms physical boundary of the cell 2. Selectively permeable regulates transport across the membrane 3. Structural support 4. Motility facilitated by the presence of cilia (moves EC fluid, flagellum (moves cell), etc. 5. Signal Transduction- movement of a stimulus from one form to another 6.Cellular recognition- autoimmune conditions

Components of the plasma membrane


1) Lipids - not very soluble in H20
Fats and oils Phospholipids
Phosopholipid bilayer contains: Hydrophillic , polar head Hydrophobic, non-polar tail Glycerol + Phosphate group

Fluid mosaic model phospholipids swim about the bilayers of the cell membrane

Phospholipid Molecule
choline
PO4glycerol Tail Non-polar Hydrophobic (water-repelling)

Head Polar Hydrophilic (water-loving)

Components of the plasma membrane


1) Lipids Phospholipid bilayer Cholesterol and other lipids
Glycolipids sugar attached to a fay Lipoproteins- (HDL and LDL) Steroids These all influences membrane fluidity

Structure of phospholipids and glycolipids

C,H,O

Glycolipids
Carbohydrate-attached lipids. Function:
Provide energy Serve as markers for marker for cellular recognition (markers that can tell if a cell belongs or not)

Components of the plasma membrane


1) Lipids
2) Carbohydrates - most abundant biomolecules,
yet only 5% of the membrane

Glycoproteins

Membrane components: carbohydrates


Carbohydrates
Simple sugars
fructose, glucose , galactose (monosaccharides or oligosaccarides) Sucrose, maltose, lactose (disaccharides)

Complex sugars
chitin, glycogen, cellulose , starch, dextrin (polysaccharides high in energy)

Membrane carbohydrates form the Glycocalyx


Glycocalyx (sugar coat on the outside of the cell)- located on extracellular surface Sperm have a sweet tooth

Glycoproteins
Function:
orient and anchor membrane proteins serve as a type of recognition particles
ABO blood groups determined by oligosaccharides on surface of RBC (antigens)

Components of the plasma membrane


1) Lipids 2) Carbohydrates 3) Proteins (at least 50% of membrane)
What are proteins?
Proteins are a linear chain of amino acids Primary structure (amino acids sequence) Secondary structure (amino acid interactions) Tertiary structure (complex forming) Quaternary structure (protein complexes)

Four levels of protein structure


Primary structure (amino acids sequence) Secondary structure (amino acid Tertiary structure structure (protein complexes)

Membrane protein classes include:


1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Integral proteins Peripheral proteins Anchoring/structureal proteins Enzymatic proteins Receptor proteins Carrier proteins Channels
a) b) Non-gated Ion Gated

Membrane Proteins
1) Integral membrane protein normally spans membrane - transmembrane protein Crosses the membrane 2) Peripheral membrane protein - bound to the inner or outer surface (two com together to make tight junctions 3) Anchoring proteins (junction proteins)
attach cell membrane to structures : cytoskeleton attach cell membrane to other membranes: intercalated discs These proteins can degrade when metabolized

4) Enzymatic Proteins (help break down other substances)


- Binds enzymes to catalyze intracellular or extracellular reactions Example: peptidases

Membrane proteins
5) Receptor proteins Bind to ligands , causes cells to respond Ex: Insulin, antigen, glucose, neurotransmitters, serotonin, epinephrine, ect. 6) Carrier proteins transport solutes across membranes - Includes uniport, symport, and antiport ATP dependent - Na+ K- exchange protein ATP independent- neurotransmitter transporters NEVER FORMS AND OPEN CHANNEL

7a) Non gated ion channel proteins


Non-gated- always open
Leak Channel or pores (Cl- channel, K+ channel, etc.) Selectivity determined by channel diameter and electrical charge of amino acids

7b) Gated ion channels gated = opening/closing


gated by voltage change (Na+, K+, Ca2+ channels) gated by chemical ligand (chemical binds to receptor) (acetylcholine receptor) gated by physical change (physical distortion of membrane) ( temperature, force)

Channel Protein Structure


Selectivity is determined by channel of amino acids that line the channel

Gated Channel Proteins

Types of gating:

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