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Primary Data
There are various methods for collecting primary (original) data
Eg questionnaire, survey, interview, observation
Control over investigation much greater Can more easily avoid data-driven research Cost can be prohibitive Pilot studies can be very helpful
Choice of method
Shipman: choice often between sampling and case study Intensive versus extensive research design Qualitative versus quantitative data Interpretivists favour the former; positivists favour the latter All primary research involves selection Most methods require sampling
Sampling: definitions
Population: must be defined Finite population: e.g. voters Sampling unit: single potential member of sample Sampling frame: list of sampling units (NB 1936 US Presidential election) Sample: drawn from sampling frame
Probability Sampling
Probability of each sampling unit being chosen is known (often equal probability) Simple random sampling: classic method, regarded as most reliable, least biased List numbered sampling frame members and select via random number generator Other probabilistic methods are available
Systematic sampling
List members of sampling frame Choose first sample member randomly Then choose every Kth unit, where K=N/n More convenient than SRS for large popn Can be a systematic pattern in sample list, leading to bias; e.g. corner shops
Stratified sampling
Divide population into groups of alike members Strata sizes usually proportionate to popn Draw randomly from groups Cost effective Ensure representativeness Can lead to excessive number of sub-groups
Cluster Sampling
Select large groups Select sampling units from clusters randomly Example: take a city, divide into areas, number areas, select areas randomly, number units within areas, select units randomly Very cost-effective Very good if sampling frame poorly defined
Non-probability Sampling
Convenience sampling: select whoever is available Quota sampling: collect data according to proportions of the population Selection of subjects absolutely crucial Requires great skill of interviewers Snowball sampling: select next subject from previous subject
Non-Probability Sampling
Theoretical sampling: select those most likely to be affected by an issue Can ignore things which do not fit Can interpret observations according to the theory Non-prob sampling cannot claim representativeness as easily but gives much more discretion and control
Response Rates
Another possible trade-off is on response rates R = 1 - (n-r)/n Even if initial sample size is appropriate (n = n/(1+(n/N)) where n = s2/SE2: see F-N and N: 194-9) response rates can be low Postal questionnaires: typically 20-40% Non-response bias
Response Rates
Non-respondents could affect findings If reason for non-response is related to issue: e.g. reluctance to interview drunks hampers study on alcoholism Response rate can be improved by cover letter, callbacks, skill of researcher, length of questionnaire, types of question
Conclusions
All types of primary data require selection If sampling used: various methods possible Sampling method relates to research tool Different data collection techniques: questionnaires, interviews, etc. - all to be studied in Research Methods 2 - all have advantages and disadvantages
Secondary Data
Introduction
Primary quantitative data has several advantages, particularly control; qualitative data too Do not equate primary and qualitative Today: advantages of secondary data Searching on electronic data sources including the Internet
Secondary data
Primary/secondary is not = qualitative/quantitative Qualitative can include secondary data sources such as personal documents, auto/biographies, etc. Secondary: collected by someone else, e.g. another academic researcher, business, government agency, etc.
Secondary data
Used extensively in social science
Durkheim: suicide Marx: wages, incomes, prices Weber: church records
OECD: ONS: UN: Penn World Tables: BEA (US): Ameristat: Eurostat: World Bank: CIA: US Statistical Abstract: See Dissertation homepage/hb
Conclusions
Secondary data has many advantages and disadvantages relative to primary There is a wide range of secondary data available Much data is available on the internet Internet sources must be scrutinised more closely than other sources
Qualitative Data
Introduction
Principals of research design and sampling basically hold for quantitative and qualitative data However, they apply most easily to quantitative analysis Qualitative analysis has different foci Qualitative analysis relatively (to quant; other soc sci) unused in economics
Fieldwork
Study of people acting in their daily lives Access a group but remain somewhat detached Approach with key questions Teams get range of perspectives Danger of self-perception and bias
Participant Observation
Adopt perspectives of subject group in order to understand them Learning language, customs, behaviours, work, leisure, etc. Hanging around and learning the ropes Being an outsider can changes subjects behaviour Complete participation - researcher wholly concealed contamination and artificiality
Participant Observation
Researchers can go native (internalise group lifestyle) Covert researchers can be in danger or create detrimental behaviour Researchers can be piggy in the middle Covert: recording observations can be difficult (e.g. need hidden cameras) Serious ethical issues with covert observation
Grounded theory
Data collected Develop categories (with inevitable theoretical priors and language) Categories checked by data Once categories seem secure and grounded in the evidence, formulate interconnection between categories
Evaluation
Broad range of qualitative techniques Control over the investigation; less data driven; flexibility much greater than quantitative studies Logistically difficult: Huge amounts of data produced and problems with manipulation (although Nvivo will help with this) Must be careful to collect evidence widely to avoid bias Can be ethical issues re: data collection and reporting