Jay Bhavsar Asst.

prof CSPIT

No matter how carefully made, however, observations (measurements) are never exact and will always contain error.
Surveyors (geomatic engineers) should understand the different kinds of errors, their sources and expected magnitudes under varying conditions, and their manner of propagation.

By definition an error is
Where E : the error in an observation X : the observed value : its true value

It can be unconditionally stated that 1. no observation is exact, 2. every observation contains error, 3. the true value of an observation is never known, and 4. the exact error present is always unknown.

Obviously, accuracy of an observations depends on

the scales division size, reliability of equipment used, and human limitations in estimating closer than about one tenth of a

scale division.

As better equipment is developed, observations one closely approach their true values. But they can never be exact. Note that observation such as counts are not considered here (e.g. one car, two men).

Natural Errors:
Errors that caused by variation in: wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric

Instrumental Errors:
Errors that result from any imperfection in the

pressure, gravity, etc.

Personal Errors:
sight and touch.

construction or adjustment of instruments.

Arise from limitations of the human senses of

Mistakes Systematic errors Accidental errors

These are observer blunders and are usually caused by

misunderstanding the problem,

carelessness,
fatique (being tiered), missed communication, or poor judgment.

Result from factors that comprise the measuring system. For example: The use of a 100 ft steel tape that has been calibrated and found to be 0.02 ft too long. The error is readily eliminated by applying a correction.

These error remains after elimination of mistakes and systematic errors. They are likely to be in both directions & hence termed as Compensating error or Random error They follow the laws of probability. Typically are normally distributed. Magnitudes and signs of random errors are a matter of chance, and thus tend to cancel themselves in repeated measurements.

This errors occurs due to

Change in atmosphere Human limits

These are small unavoidable errors which are difficult to detect These are not of much significance for ordinary surveys but very important for precise survey work

Imperfection in instrument

Conditional equation : The equation expressing relation between several dependent quantities is known as conditional equation.
Conditional quantities : When the vale of a quantity depends on value of one or more quantities it is known as conditional quantity. e.g. A+B+C= 180 C depends on A&B

Independent quantity : When the observed quantity does not depend on values of other quantities it is said to be an independent quantity.

Direct Observation : When observation is made directly to measure numerical value of a quality it is said to be direct observation.
Indirect Observation : When observed value is to be derived from the measurement of some related quantities it is said to be an indirect observation.

Observed value : The observed value of a quantity is the value derived from an observation after correcting the same for all the known errors. True value : The true value of quantity is the value of the quantity absolutely free from all errors. Since the true error is not known, the true value is never known.

Most Probable Value : The value which is likely to be the true value than any other value of quantity is known as most probable value. It is obtained by several measurements. Weight : The weight of an observation is indicative of the worth trustworthiness, precision, or confidence placed upon the observed value. It is also measure of reliability of the observed value.

True error : The true error is the difference between the true value and the observed value of quantity. It is not known.
Most probable error: It is the value to be added or subtracted from the most probable value to fix limits within which there is even chance for the value of measured quantity to lie.

Residual error : Residual error is the difference between most probable value and observed value of quantity.

The probability curve serves two important purposes.

As a measure of series of the precession of any

series of observation As a means of assigning weights to two or more quantities to find most probable value.
= 0.6745

v2/n1

The following values are the observed values of A : 36 22 40, 36 22 44, 36 22 42, 36 22 50, 36 22 38, 36 22 46 Find the most probable value of angle.

M= 36 22 +(40+44+42+50+38+46)/6 M= 36 22 43.33

The following values are the observed values of A : 36 22 40(1), 36 22 44(2), 36 22 42(4), 36 22 50(3), 36 22 38(2), 36 22 46 (3). The weights assigned to the measurements are given in brackets. 36 22+ ( 40x1+44x2+42x4+50x3+38x2+46x3) (1+2+4+3+2+3) = 36 22 44

Find the most probable value of A, B , C given that A=4612 34, B=2218 36,C= A+B= 6831 13. Solution

A=4612 34, (i) B=2218 36, .(ii) C= A+B= 6831 13.(iii)

Multiply eq(i) by 1 & (iii) by 1 and add 2A+B =114 43 47 ( Normal equation- A)..(iv)

Multiply eq(ii) by 1 & (iii) by 1 and add A+2B =90 49 49 ( Normal equation- B )..(v)
Solving equation (iv) & (v) -2A-B =-114 43 47 (multiply eq(iv) with-1) 2A+4B =181 2734 (muliplying eq(v) with 2) B =22 18 37 Again solving eq (iv) & (v) fro A A= 461235 C= A+B=68 31 12

Find the most probable value of A, B , C of triangle given that A=5932 46(2), B=5612 18(4),C= 6402 15(3). Solution
A=5932 46(2)(i) B=5612 18(4).(ii) A+B=180-C=1154458(3)(iii)

2A=11905 32(multiply eq (i) by2)(iv) 4B=22449 12(multiply eq (ii) by 4).(v) 3A+3B=347 1454 (multiply eq (iii) by 3).(vi)

The normal equation for A 5A+3B=4662026 The normal equation for B 3A +7B = 572 0406 Solving this normal equation A=593243.22, B=561216.62 C= 180-(A+B)=64 15 0.15

The most probable value of a quantity evaluated from number of observation is the one for which the squares of the residual errors is minimum.
Let X1, X2,X3 etc., be the observed value. And M is arithmetic mean, then

M =(X1+X2, +X3 Xn)/n = X/n

If Z is the most probable value, then residual error e e1= Z-X1 e2= Z-X2 e3= Z-X3 en= Z-Xn
Z = X/n + e/n Z=M + e/n If n is very large then second order term become zero Z=M

Now we calculate residual error r1 from mean value r1= M-X1 r2= M-X2 r3= M-X3 rn= M-Xn
M= X/n + r/n nM=X+ r or r= nM-X.(i) If n is very large then second order term become zero M= X/n

Squaring eq (i)and adding r2= nM2+X2 2MX M= X/n X2 = r2+X2/n We can find similar equation by find the residual d from any other value V dn=V-Xn d2= nV2+X2 2VX d2= nV2+r2+X2/n 2VX

d2= r2+ n(V2 2VX/n+V2/n 2) d2= r2+ n(VX/n)2

The second term being square of quantity is always positive . This shows d2 is more than r2. Hence the sum of the squares of the errors from the mean is the minimum, which is principal of least squares.

Four angles were measured at a station closing the horizon. The values of angles are. A=1024851 (Weighit-3),B=854237 (Weighit-2),C=1083647 (Weighit-4),D=62 5150 (Weighit-1). Solution Sum of the angles = 3600005 A+B+C+D=360 ea + eb + ec+ ed =-5

From principal of least squares 3ea2 + 2eb2 + 4ec2+ ed2 is minimum, Differencing the equation

dea + deb +dec+ ded =0(i) 3dea + 2deb +4dec+ ded =0.(ii)
Multiplying eq (i) by l ldea l deb ldec lded =0 Adding above eq. and eq(ii) dea (3ea l) + deb (2eb l)+dec(4ec l) + ded(ed l) =0

3ea l=0 ea =l/3 2ea l=0 eb =l/2 4ea l=0 ec =l/4 ea l=0 ed =l Substituting this value in eq. ea + eb + ec+ ed =-5 l/3+ l/2+l/4+l=-5 l=-2.4

ea =-2.4/3 = 0.8 eb =-2.4/2 = -1.2 ec =-2.4/4 =-0.6 ed =-2.4 = -2.4

A=1024851 0.8=1024850.2 B=854237 -1.2 =854235.8 C=1083647 -0.6 =1083646.4 D=62 5150 -2.4 =62 5147.6