Resolution

When an input is increased from some arbitrary value,

the output does not immediately change The output changes only when the input exceeds a certain threshold value called the resolution or discrimination of the instrument Resolution is the smallest change in the input which is detectable by the instrument Resolution is specified as an absolute value or as a percentage of f.s. deflection
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Sensitivity to Disturbance
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are

only valid under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc. Standard ambient conditions are defined in the instrument specifications As variation in ambient conditions occurs certain static instrument characteristics change Instruments are affected in two ways
Zero Drift or Bias Sensitivity Drift
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Zero & Sensitivity Drift

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Hysteresis effect
If input measured quantity to the instrument is

steadily increased from a negative value, the output reading varies in the manner shown in curve A If the input is then steadily decreased the output varies in the manner shown in curve B Non coincidence between the loading and unloading curves is known as hysteresis Hysteresis is exhibited by instruments that contain springs and electrical windings formed around an iron core
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Hysteresis effect

EE220 Instrumentation & Measurement

Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic Characteristics refers to the performance of the

instrument when the input variable is changing rapidly with time Dynamic Characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behavior between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the instrument output attains a steady value in response As with Static Characteristics any values for dynamic characteristics quoted in instrument data sheets only apply under specified conditions Variation in Dynamic Characteristics is expected when specified conditions change
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Dynamic Characteristics
Human eye can not detect an event whose duration is

more than 1/10th of second Dynamic performance of an instrument is expressed by a differential equation relating the input and output quantities
d n qo d n 1qo dq an an 1 n 1 ... a1 o a0 q0 dt n dt dt d m qi d m 1qi dq bm m bm 1 m 1 ... b1 i b0 qi dt dt dt
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Dynamic Characteristics
Transfer function G(s)
xo (s) bm s m bm1s m1... b1s b0 G( s) xi ( s) an s n an1s n1... a1s a0

n is called the order of the system Commonly available sensors characteristics can be

approximated as zero-th order, first order or second order

EE220 Instrumentation & Measurement

Zero Order Instrument

If all the coefficients are zero other than ao a0 qo b0 qi qo b0 qi / a0 kqi k is a constant known as instrument sensitivity
Potentiometer is a zero order instrument Output voltage changes instantaneously as the slider is

moved

EE220 Instrumentation & Measurement

Potentiometer
Sensors using

Potentiometric principle has no storage elements Output voltage eo can be related with input displacement xi
eo (t ) xt Exi (t )
eo ( s ) E = constant xi ( s ) xt
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First Order Instrument

If all the coefficients are zero other than ao and a1 dqo a0 qo b0 qi a1 dt b0 qi / a0 qo 1 (a1 / a0 ) D
K= b1/b0 is a constant known as instrument sensitivity = a1/a0 is the time constant of the system q Kqi o 1 D
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First Order Instrument

Thermometer and Thermocouple are examples of first

order instruments Output of Thermometer and Thermocouple in response to a step change in input varies with time in an exponential manner time constant of the step response is the time taken for the output quantity to reach 63% of its final value

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Thermocouple

eo ( s ) Kv T f ( s ) 1 s

Kv steady state voltage

sensitivity of Thermocouple V/C0

mC hA
m mass of the junction

C Specific Heat
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Thermocouple
h heat transfer co-

efficient A surface area of hot junction

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Second Order Instrument

If all the coefficients are zero other than ao, a1 and a2 d 2 qo dqo a2 2 a1 a0 qo b0 qi dt dt b0 qi qo a0 a1 D a2 D 2
Accelerometers (Seismic sensors) are examples of

second order instruments Output of second order instrument in response to a step change in input varies with time in a sinusoidal (damped, over damped, under damped) manner
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