CE10048 - TRANSPORT PHENOMENA I

Dr. SEAN P. RIGBY

TOPICS:
Revision and background: Newtonian Mechanics
Types of fluids and fluid properties
Continuity, Bernoulli and Momentum Equations
Application of the above equations
Flow measurement
Pressure drop in pipes and fittings
Laminar and turbulent flow
Dimensional analysis
Why are we studying Transport Phenomena ?
In order to design a chemical plant we need to be able to construct
a mathematical model of our new idea to see whether it will make the
required amount of product from the given raw materials. Plants
generally involve chemicals, in the form of fluids (liquids, gases),
moving around in pipes, vessels etc. Hence, in order to know how
our design idea will perform, we need to be able to predict how fluids
will behave in our plant. In order to monitor and control our plant once
we have built it, we also need to be able to measure fluid flow rates.

BOOKS
(i) Chemical Engineering series Volume 1, Coulson and Richardson
(ii) Transport Phenomena, Bird, Stewart and Lightfoot
(iii) Introduction to Fluid Mechanics & Transfer Processes,
Kay & Nedderman
1. Fluids
1.1 Properties
Density
Liquid: slight variation with temperature
Gases: marked variation with temperature
Units: mass density = kg/m
3
; molar density = mol/m
3

- differ by molecular mass
Specific gravity: ratio of density of substance to that of water
Viscosity,
= Resistance to shear
e.g. 2 planes, one fixed, one moving,
both of area A
Velocity gradient = du/dy = u/h
(if uniform gradient)
Shear stress = t = FORCE/AREA = .du/dy
Dynamic viscosity, = ( F.h )/( A.u ) Units = N.s/m
2
= kg/m.s
Fixed
h
Force, F Velocity, u
Fluid filled gap
Kinematic viscosity, v = / Units = m
2
/s

Pressure
p = Force per unit area
Measured using a barometer and other devices/methods
In a stagnant fluid, pressure variation with depth:





Force on bottom A.p
Force on top A.( p + op )
Weight A.oh..g

A.p = A. ( p + op ) + A.oh..g
Hence dp/dh = -.g
p
p + op
Area, A
h
oh
U-tube manometer

Pressure at A = p = pressure at A
/

Pressure at B = p - .g.h
= atmospheric pressure, p
a

Thus: p - p
a
= .g.h

- measures pressure differences
= density of manometer fluid

Absolute pressure - genuine pressure, force/unit area, N/m
2

More often in bar = 10
5
N/m
2


Gauge pressure - pressure above pressure in the surroundings
(usually atmospheric)

Absolute pressure - bar absolute, bara
Gauge pressure - bar gauge, barg
Gas
filled
vessel
p
A
B
A
/

h
1.2. Fluid manometer

Pressure at A = p
1


Pressure at C
= p
1
+
w
.g.h
1


Pressure at D
= p
1
+
w
.g.h
1
+
Hg
.g.h

Pressure at B = p
1
+
w
.g.h
1
+
Hg
.g.h -
w
.g.(h+h
1
) = p
2


Thus: p
2
- p
1
= (
Hg
-
w
).g.h = A.g.h

so if A is small, h is large - hence high accuracy
Pressures often expressed as m of fluid, e.g. mH
2
O, mHg, mHg/H
2
O
Pressures also often expressed as head: H = p/(.g)
where is the density of the fluid

A p
1

B p
2

Pump
h
1

C
h
D
Hg
Water
1.3 Laminar and Turbulent flow Reynolds 1883
Flow Dye
Low velocities
Laminar Flow
High velocities
Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow - when viscous forces are dominating the situation
- viscous flow

Transition is sudden
Transition point
U = mean velocity of fluid in pipe (= volumetric flow/area)
d = pipe diameter
Units:

2200 is dimensionless, and known as the Reynolds number
2200 =

. d . U
=
kg
s . m
.
m
kg
.
m
.
s
m
3
U
t
U
t
U
t
Laminar Flow
Small scale turbulence
Re = 2000 to 10
5


Small fluctuations about a well-
defined mean


Gross Turbulence
Variation in time of instantaneous velocity at a point
2. IDEAL FLUIDS
Assume no viscosity, thus velocity is uniform across a cross-section
of flow - fits turbulent flow better than laminar flow (see later)

2.1. Continuity Equation
Flow
1
2
A
1
, v
1

A
2
, v
2

Control surface
- boundary of space
under consideration
Apply Conservation of mass between 1 and 2

Mass flow rate, W = A
1
.v
1
.
1
= A
2
.v
2
.
2


Often
1
=
2
, e.g. for liquids
If not ideal, v not
constant (across
cross-section):
}
=
1
A
dA v W . .
2.2. Bernoullis Equation
In steady flow a streamline is a line along which the fluid flows. Take
a control surface with the sides along streamlines (i.e. no flow
across sides)
1
2
h
1

h
2

Small
area
Stream tube
Consider a small mass of fluid m entering at section 1
Volume = mV
1
where V
1
is the specific volume = 1/
1
= 1/

Work done by fluid entering tube:
= p
1
.m.V
1
= m.p
1
/ (pressure x volume or F.d )
If incompressible
Fluid leaving tube does work = p
2
.m.V
2
= m.p
2
/

Net work done by surroundings on fluid in tube = m.(p
1
- p
2
)/

By Conservation of energy, this appears as:
1) gain of kinetic energy = m(v
2
2
- v
1
2
)/2 ;and

2) gain in potential energy = m(h
2
- h
1
)g
( )
( )
1 2
2
1
2
2 2 1
2 2
h h mg
v v
m
p p m
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
gh
v p
gh
v p
+ + = + +

Bernoullis equation
Note units of each term are J/kg - i.e. energy per unit mass of fluid
Equation allows you to keep track of the conversion of energy
In this crude derivation we have assumed:
1) Constant density
2) Steady state (no allowance for accumulation of energy)
3) No interchange of mechanical and thermal energy
4) No forces on the side of the stream tube (e.g. friction from a
pipe wall)

More correct form:
L gh
v p
gh
v p
+ + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Where L= lost energy (per unit mass) due to any of the above factors.
L is negative if there is a pump in the stream tube (an energy gain)

Bernoulli is best over short distances in smoother turbulent flows.
Never exact - but often good enough
A
y
h
v
H
p
a

p
a
Consider an element of fluid that
starts at A and comes out of orifice

At A:
v
1
~ 0
p
1
= p
a
+ .g.y
h
1
= -y
In jet: v
2
= v; p
2
= p
a
; h
2
= -H

Apply Bernoullis equation:
gH
v p
gy
gy p
a a
+ = +
+
2 2
0
2 2

p
a
cancels, also y, thus
gH v 2 =
However, this is the prediction of an oversimplified theory...
Arbitrary datum level
Actual velocity =

C
v
- velocity coefficient - ratio of actual to predicted velocity
- usually C
v
~ 0.99
Theory works because velocity gradients are small except in a very
small region near orifice.

Observe Jet
Minimum area
= Vena Contracta
Contraction due to momentum of the fluid
approaching from sides. For a sharp edged
circular orifice, C
c
~ 0.65
(C
c
= contraction coefficient
= ratio of areas: vena contracta:orifice)
Mass flow rate:
gH C A C Av W
v o c
2 = =
gH A C
o D
2 =
A
o
= orifice area (x C
c
gives vena
contracta area)
A
o

Discharge coefficient
gH C
v
2
C
D
- ratio of actual mass flow rate to that predicted assuming no
energy losses and no contraction.
C
D
= C
c
C
v
~ 0.64 - due almost entirely to contraction

Terminology
g
L
h
g
v
g
p
h
g
v
g
p
+ + + = + +
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
Pressure
head
Velocity
head
Potential
head
TOTAL HEAD
Lost head
(all terms have units
of length)
2.3. Measurement of Velocity Pitot Tube

At A: pressure, p velocity, v
At B: p = p
0
v = 0
AB horizontal

Apply Bernoullis equation from A to B:
FLOW
A
B
Velocity
zero
No flow
in tube
To some
pressure
measuring device
2 2
2
0
0
2
v
p p
p v p

+ = = +
p
0
is the stagnation pressure (pressure in fluid when brought to rest)

v
2
/2 is the dynamic pressure (the extra pressure associated with K.E.)

p is the static pressure (the pressure in the moving liquid)
B
A
C
p
0
= p + v
2
/2

Cannot measure p
A
but can
measure p
C

But p
A
= p
C
, otherwise there
would be a transverse force on the
fluid leading to an acceleration
perpendicular to the surface
p
B
p
A

No pressure gradient normal to straight parallel streamlines.
Connect tapping to manometer - record height h

p
B
- p
C
= (
m
- ).g.h = .v
2
/2 Hence find v

If flow not in duct or if distance AC is large, need better way of
measuring p
A.

Pitot-Static Tube
Stagnation pressure
Pitot tube
Static pressure
Coaxial tube with
a ring of small holes
in side
h
As before: (
m
).g.h = .v
2
/2
Problems
If front too blunt, streamlines
curved near static holes -
static pressure measurement is
then unreliable
Example: a Pitot-static tube in air-water manometer
- records 25 cm water

Ap = h.(
w
-
air
).g
= (0.25).(1000).(9.81) (ignore
air
as small)
= 245 N/m
2

= .v
2
/2 = (0.5).1.29.v
2
Hence v = 19.5 m/s

Pressure difference leads to density difference - but we have assumed
constant density.
Provided velocity is less than one third of the velocity of sound, we
can ignore density changes.
2.4 Measurement of Flow Rate
2.4.1. Venturi Meter
Gradual contraction, followed by gradual expansion
(1)
(2)
(3)
p
1
p
2

Continuity Equation (assume constant density)
A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2
= A
3
v
3
Usually A
3
= A
1
, hence v
3
= v
1


Apply Bernoullis equation:
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
v p v p
+ = +

( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

1
2 2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2 1
A
A v
v v
p p

( ) ( )
2
1
2
2 1
2
2
2
1
2 1
1 1 1
1
2
1
2
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

= =
A
A
p p
A
A
A
p p
A v A W

Because of losses, extra contraction, non-uniform velocity, insert a

discharge coefficient, C
D

( )
1
2
2
2
1
2 1
1

|
.
|

\
|

=
A
A
p p
A C W
D

For a well designed Venturi: C

D
~0.96-0.98
Usually A
3
= A
1
, v
3
= v
1
apply Bernoulli
2 2 2
2
3 3
2
2 2
2
1 1
v p v p v p
+ = + = +

Ideally p
3
= p
1


In fact large losses in the divergent portion often means p
3
< p
1


Define Diffuser Efficiency as
q =
Bernoulli by predicted rise essure Pr
rise pressure Actual
( )
2
3
2
2 2 3
2
1
v v p p = q
If angle too large get stagnant
fluid here
Jet
Diffuser angle must be small <10
o

- hence diffuser must be long
If A
3
>>A
2
, v
3
<<v
2

neglect v
3
2
compared with v
2
2

Alternative definition for q:
inlet at KE
rise essure Pr
= q
2.4.2. Sharp Edged Orifice Plate
(1)
(2), section at vena-contracta
(i) Smooth flow upstream
of the orifice.
(ii) Vena contracta in jet.
(iii) Jet breaks up
downstream.
Apply Bernoullis equation from (1) to (2):
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
v p v p
+ = +

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2 2 1
1
2
1
2 A
A C v
A
A v p p
o c

Where A
o
is the area of the orifice, C
c
is contraction coefficient ~0.65
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
2
1
2 1
2 2
1
2
A
A C
p p
C A C v A W
o c
v o c

. . . . .
( )
2
1
2 1
1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
A
A
p p
C A W
o
D o

.
v c D
C C C but =
p
1
- easy to measure - wall tapping at point (1)
p
2
- pressure in jet at vena contracta - minimum area

- where jet is parallel sided there is no pressure gradient normal
to flow, so the pressure in the jet is equal to the pressure
surrounding the jet.
(1) p
1
(2) p
2

Region of almost constant presssure
Slow moving fluid, more or
less at constant pressure
- equal to pressure in jet
at vena contracta
Cannot apply Bernoullis equation downstream of an orifice
plate
- because of energy losses as the jet breaks up
2.5. Momentum Equation
Applied Force = Rate of Creation of Momentum
(Newtons second law of motion)
Flow
A
1

p
1

v
1

1

A
2
,p
2

v
2
,
2
R = force exerted by duct
wall on fluid
= force exerted by fluid
on wall

(for circular cross-section, by
symmetry, all radial forces cancel
to zero)
R
R
(1) (2)
Consider shaded fluid, net force to right
= A
1
.p
1
- A
2
.p
2
- R = rate of creation of rightward motion
= outflow of rightward momentum - inflow of rightward mom.
= W.v
2
- W.v
1

( ) ( ) R v A p A v A p A = + +
2
2 2 2 2 2
2
1 1 1 1 1

Impulse function, F
Hence: F
1
- F
2
= R
i.e. Force on wall = change in impulse function
Forces (and hence impulse functions) are vectors.
2 1
F F R + =
Minus sign above because forces are at 180
o

Note in: A.p + A..v
2
it is always a plus sign

We have been using the concept of

Momentum flux = Mass flow rate x Velocity

c.f solid body mechanics uses: Momentum = Mass x Velocity
2.5.1. Pressure Recover Downstream of an Orifice Plate
(1)
(2) Vena
Contracta
(3) sufficiently
downstream to
have steady flow
Break-up of jet
Apply Bernoulli from (1) to (2)
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
v p v p
+ = +

Apply Momentum Eqn. From (2) to (3)
(No force on wall since parallel sided and fluid assumed ideal)
Net force to right = A
1
p
2
- A
3
p
3
= A
1
.( p
2
- p
3
) [since A
3
= A
1
]
Since p
2
acts across whole cross-section
= Gain in right-ward momentum = W.( v
3
- v
2
) = A
1
.
1
.v
1
.( v
1
- v
2
)
= v
3

( ) ( ) ( )
2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 1
v v v p p v v v A p p A = =
2 3 1 2
p p v v as > >
Compare with: p
1
- p
2
= .( v
2
2
- v
1
2
)/2 from Bernoulli above

Ratio:
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 1
1
2
1
2
2
1 2 1
2 1
2 3
2
2
v v
v
loss essure Pr
ery cov re essure Pr
v v
v v v
p p
p p
+
= =

( ) ( )
2 1 2 3 1 2
p p p p v v < >
i.e. pressure recovery ALWAYS less than original pressure loss
Summary
Apply Bernoulli from point (1) to (2) (assuming no energy losses)

p
1
- p
2
= .( v
2
2
- v
1
2
)/2 (1)

Apply Momentum equation from point (2) to (3) (assuming no
force on the wall)
(2)

Subtract: (3)
( )
1 2 1 2 3
v v v p p =
( )
2
2 1 3 1
2
v v p p =

Apply Momentum equation from point (1) to (2)
R v v A p A v A p A + + = +
2 1 1 2 1
2
1 1 1 1

W
Force on orifice plate
( ) ( )
2 1 1 1 2 1 1
v v v A p p A R + =
eliminate (p
1
- p
2
)
using eq. (1)...
( )
2
2 1
1
2
v v
A
R =

Force on orifice plate
[Overall Momentum balance from point (1) to (3):
A
1
p
1
+ A
1
v
1
2
= A
1
p
3
+ A
1
v
1
2
+ R
thus R = A
1
(p
1
- p
3
) (as before)]


Apply Bernoulli from (2) to (3):
By Continuity Eq. v
1
= v
3

L
v p v p
+ + = +
2 2
2
3 3
2
2 2

Substitute for (p
3
- p
2
) using eq. (2) from above: L = (v
1
- v
2
)
2
/2

Apply Bernoullis eq. From pt. (1) to (3)
( )
2 2 2
2
2 1 3 1
2
3 3
2
1 1
v v p p
L L
v p v p
=

= + + = +

v
3
= v
1

From eq. (3)
What happens to the lost energy ? - goes to thermal energy

L = lost energy per unit mass = cAT, where c is the specific heat capacity
( )
c
v v
T
2
2
2 1

= A
Example: v
1
= 5 m/s (very fast flow)
v
2
= 10 m/s (area of vena contracta = A
1
/2)

Assume flowing fluid is water:
( )
K . T 003 0
4187 2
10 5
2
=

= A
2.5.2. Sudden Pipe Expansion
A
1

v
1
A
2

v
2
(1) (2)
As the fluid goes
from point (1) to
point (2) there is a
loss of momentum:
W.(v
1
- v
2
) = A
2
.v
2
..(v
1
- v
2
)
= applied force (on region (1) to (2) )
= p
2
A
2
- p
1
A
2

( )
2 1 2 1 2
v v . v . p p =
Because p
1
acts over
whole cross-section
Loss of
energy =
( )
2 2 2 2
2
2
2
1
2 1 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
v v
v v v
v p v p
+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

=
2
2
1
2
2
2
2 1
1
2 2 A
A v v v
Sudden Pipe Contraction
(1) (2) (3)
Exactly the same as orifice
plate calculation except
that A
1
is not equal to A
3

2.5.3. Effect of External Pressure - (use of absolute and gauge pres.)
(1) (2)
p
a

p
a
p
a
p
a
Bernoullis equation
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
v p v p
+ = +

p
1
, p
2
- absolute pressures
Gauge pressure p
/
, hence
p
1
= p
1
/
+ p
a

p
2
= p
2
/
+ p
a
where p
a
is
atmospheric
pressure
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
v p p v p p
a
/
a
/
+ + = + +

Exactly the same equation
- Bernoullis eq. can use either
absolute or gauge pressures,
OR measure pressure above any
arbitrary datum.
Momentum equation:
(p
1
A
1
+ A
1
v
1
2
) - (p
2
A
2
+ A
2
v
2
2
) = F (Force on wall)
If we substitute p
1
= p
1
/
+ p
a,
terms A
1
p
a
and A
2
p
a
do not cancel.
MUST use ABSOLUTE pressures when using the Momentum Eq.
F is force on inside surface of the wall. There is also a force on the
outside surface of the wall.

Put cork in each end. Net force due to
p
a
must be zero. Net force is due to
force on curved surface and force on
cork (1) (A
1
p
a
) and force on cork (2)
(A
2
p
a
). Hence:
Force on outer surface of pipe
= p
a
( A
1
- A
2
) to the left
Total right-ward force on tube:
F
T
= (p
1
A
1
+ A
1
v
1
2
) - (p
2
A
2
+ A
2
v
2
2
) - p
a
( A
1
- A
2
)
On inside surface Force on outside surface
F
T
= (p
1
/
A
1
+ A
1
v
1
2
) - (p
2
/

A
2
+ A
2
v
2
2
)
If we want force on INSIDE surface we must use ABSOLUTE
pressures.
If we want TOTAL force on pipe we must use GAUGE pressures.
2.5.4. Force on a Pipe Bend
Arithmetical Example:
60
o

D
1
= 40 mm
(1)
(2)
331.4 N
155.9 N
Water discharges to atmosphere at
(2) at a flow rate of 0.007 m
3
/s
D
2
= 20 mm
s / m .
.
.
A
Q
v 57 5
04 0
4
007 0
2
1
1
=

= =
t
s / m .
.
.
A
Q
v 28 22
02 0
4
007 0
2
2
2
=

= =
t
p
2
/
= 0 since fluid discharges to atmosphere at point (2)
Bernoullis eqn. :- p
1
/
= p
2
/
+ .( v
2
2
- v
1
2
)/2
= 0 +1000(22.28
2
- 5.57
2
)/2
= 2.327x10
5
Nm
-2


Impulse function at (1): F
1
= A
1
p
1
/
+ A
1
..v
1
2


F
1
= (t/4)x0.04
2
{2.327x10
5
+ 1000x5.57
2
} = 331.4 N

F
2
= (t/4)x0.02
2
{0 + 1000x22.28
2
} = 155.9 N

To get overall
force
60
o

331.4
155.9
X
Y R
o
X = 331.4 - ( 155.9.cos60
o
) = 253.4 N

Y = 155.9 sin60
o
= 135.0 N

R = ( X
2
+ Y
2
)
1/2
= 287 N

tan o = Y/X, thus o = 28
o

2.6. Unsteady Flows
Bernoulli can only be used in steady flow - we ignore any accumulation
of energy. Problems of moving geometry can often be converted into
steady flow problems by giving the whole system some velocity, e.g.
A
B
v
v velocity = 0
Measure velocity of
an aircraft by Pitot
tube
Coordinate system with plane moving: Apply Bernoulli from point A
to point B (top):
- wrong, since not steady state

Now give whole system velocity -v (bottom) to bring aircraft to rest
with respect to coordinate system. Now have steady state.
2
2
v p p
B A
+ =


B A
p v p
= +
2
2
- Correct
Have a force on the aircraft. If aircraft moves, then work will be done
and this must be incorporated into the energy balance.
However, if the aircraft is stationary, no work is done and Bernoulli is
CORRECT.

3. Laminar Flow
Situations in which viscous forces dominate. The Reynolds number (Re)
is less than the critical value for the Laminar/Turbulent transition. For a
cylindrical pipe the transition occurs at Re ~2000-2300. For other
geometries the value of Re at the transition takes other values.

A Newtonian Fluid is one for which the expression for the shear stress
takes the form:

dy
du
area
force
t = =
where is the viscosity, u is the fluid velocity in the x-direction.
This formula is an approximation (i.e. a special case) of the full
expression:
which you will meet
in later years.

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
c
c
=
x
v
y
u
t
y
x
u
v
For simple flow patterns we can put
the x-axis in the direction of flow,
hence v = 0, and
dy
du
t =
Because of the sign convention for shear stresses
A A
y
u
1

u
2

t
t
Velocity curve
Fluid above plane A pulls the
fluid below to the right.

Fluid below pulls fluid above
to the left.
(1)
u
2
>u
1

Experimental Observation
Gases - kinetic theory of gases predicts agreement with Eq. (1) above
which agrees well with experiment.
Liquids - Experiments show that Eq. (1) is valid for most low
molecular weight materials. Minor differences are observed for high
molecular weight materials. Polymers show elastic as well as viscous
effects.

Aside
An example of a Non-Newtonian fluid is a Power Law fluid for which
there is a different relationship between t and du/dy:-
n
dy
du
m
|
|
.
|

\
|
= t
where m and n are constants characteristic of a given fluid.
3.1. Viscous Liquid Flow down a Vertical Plane
y
u
velocity
profile
Velocity at the wall = zero
Known as The No-Slip Boundary Condition
Generally valid, except for liquid polymers and
rarefied gases

Velocity increases with distance from the wall
so du/dy is a positive quantity.
y
h
L
Take shaded element, with volume

L x ( h - y ) x unit distance into plane of
paper
Consider unit distance normal to paper:
Volume of element = L.( h - y ). 1
Weight = L..g.( h - y) = t x L x 1
Hence: t = .g.( h - y )

y<h, t is positive
Since viscous
force supports
element
( ) y h g
dy
du
= = t
Integrate
A
y
hy g u +
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2

A is the constant of
integration
Apply no-slip boundary condition, u=0 on y=0, hence A=0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
y
y . h
g
u

- Parabolic velocity profile

y
u
velocity
profile
u
i

Interfacial velocity, u
i
= maximum velocity
2
2
h g

=
Volumetric flow rate per unit distance normal to
the plane of slide (i.e. down a wall over a 1 m wide
band), Q
}
= dA . u
(where dA is the elemental
area over which the velocity
may be thought of as having
a constant value u)
}
=
h
dy u
0
1
h
h
y y . h g .
dy
y
y . h
g .
0
3 2 2
0
6 2 2
(
(

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

}
=

3
3
h . g .
=
Mean velocity = u
m
= Volumetric flow rate/Area
3
2
3 1
2
i
u h . g .
h
Q
= =

Obvious since the area

of a parabola
= (2/3) x base x height
Define a Reynolds number Re

. h . u
m
=
Above analysis will be valid when Re is less than the critical value
for the laminar/turbulent transition, which is ~1000.

However, also get wave formation.
The Critical Re for wave formation
is ~16

Thus it is wave formation, not turbulence,
which is the limiting factor for the above
analysis
Standard Pattern for Analysing Laminar Flow Problems
1) Relate t to the driving force (e.g. gravity or a pressure gradient) by
applying a force balance.
2) Substitute for t using equation for Newtonian fluid, giving an
expression for the velocity gradient.
3) Integrate the resulting equation sufficient times to give the required
result (once for velocity, twice for volumetric flow rate)

3.2. Laminar Flow in Cylindrical Pipes
u
r
t
p
ol
p + dp/dl
a
Velocity gradient du/dr is a negative quantity

Note that dp/dl is also a negative quantity
Net force to the left due to the pressure difference

Net force to the left due to the shear stress = 2t.r.ol.t

Total force is zero (because the elemental cylinder is NOT
accelerating). Hence:
l .
dl
dp
. r o t
2
=
0 2
2
= + t o t o t . l . r . l .
dl
dp
. r
dl
dp r
2
= t
Note dp/dl is negative, thus t is a positive quantity. Now substitute
for t using Newtons law of viscosity:
dr
du
t =
positive
negative
Consider signs to choose
between +/- hence
dr
du
t =
(1)
(2)
Substitute Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), hence

Integrate:

but u = 0 on wall, at r = a (tube radius)
dr
du
dl
dp r
=
2
A
dl
dp
.
r
u . + =
4
2

dl
dp r a
u .
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
4
2 2

Hence velocity profile is parabolic, with the maximum velocity along

the centre-line of the tube.

Volumetric flow rate

Look for elementary area dA over
which velocity is constant
- annular ring

dA = 2tr.dr
}
= dA . u Q
r
a
dr
( )dr . r r a
dl
dp
. . dr . u . r Q
a a
}

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
}
=
0
3 2
0
4
1
2 2

t t
a
r r a
dl
dp
.
0
4 2 2
4 2 4
2
(
(

t
dl
dp
.
a
Q

t
8
4
=
Hagen-Poiseuille Equation
Parabolic velocity profile ( )
dl
dp
r a u
2 2
4
1
=

Maximum velocity at r=0 (centre-line)

Centre line velocity is:-
dl
dp a
u
4
2
1
=
Back substitute:
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
1
a
r
u u
Define a mean velocity:
2 8
1
2
2
u
dl
dp
.
a
u
a
Q
u
m m
= = =

t
Above results apply only in laminar flow, i.e. if:
( )
2200
2
~ < =
crit
m
Re
. u . a
Re

Example: Consider water with = 0.9x10
-3
Ns/m
2
, = 1000 kg/m
3

in a 2 cm dia. Pipe: If Re = 2200, then u
m
= 0.099 m/s

Thus Q = 3.11x10
-5
m
3
/s = 31 cm
3
/s rather small

Hence dp/dl = -3.6 N/m
3
, thus in a 2 m length Ap = 7.2 N/m
2

and head loss AH = 0.732 mm H
2
O
(very small)

Only get laminar flow if the flow rate is small, the tube is narrow, or
the fluid is very viscous.

Turbulent flow is the usual state of affairs
3.3 Stokes Law
The force on a sphere of radius a moving with velocity v through a
liquid of viscosity is given by:-
F = 6tva

Valid only if Re = (2a)v/ < 2 (exceedingly low velocity)

This law can be used to measure viscosity with a small sphere falling
through the liquid for which the viscosity is required.
Drag force
F
Upthrust
U
Weight, W
g a g m U
l l
t
3
3
4
= =
Diameter
= 2a
g a g m W
s s
t
3
3
4
= =
At terminal velocity v
t
, no net acceleration thus:
U - W + F = 0
( ) 0 6
3
4
3
= + a v g a
t s l
t
t
Liquid, l
( )

9
2
2
l s
t
g a
v

=
4. Dimensional Analysis
Helps with interpreting experimental results. Dimensions of all terms
in an equation must be the same.
E.g. Consider a particle accelerating from rest with constant acceleration
a. What is the velocity u at time t?
u = f ( a, t )
Units: m/s m/s
2
, s
Dimensions: L/T L/T
2
, T
Assume that the velocity is given by some dimensionless constant x a
o
x t
|
. Hence: u = A.a
o
.t
|
(where A is a dimensionless constant)
|
o
T
T
L
T
L
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
Equate coefficients in L : 1 = o
Equate coefficients in T : -1 = -2o + | thus | = 1

Hence: u = A.a.t
Distance moved: s = f (a, t )
Try: s = B.a

.t
o
2 1
2
= = |
.
|

\
|
= o
o

; T
T
L
L
Thus: s = B.a.t
2

Leads to results useful in formulation without reference to physics
(however it does not give the fact that B = 1/2)

Fluid Mechanics Example (where equation is NOT known)
d
p = 0
v
A
p
Sphere of diameter d in fluid
stream of velocity v. What is
the pressure at point A?
Assume: p = f ( v, d, , ) assume of nothing else
3 2 2
m
kg
m
Ns
m
s
m
m
N
3 2
L
M
LT
M
L
T
L
LT
M
Method 1 Assume pressure is given by:
o | o
. . d . v . A p =
Thus:
o

|
o
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
3 2
L
M
LT
M
L
T
L
LT
M
Equate coefficients in M: 1 = + o
L: -1 = o + | 3o
T: -2 = o
3 equations
in 4 unknowns
Thus: o = 1 o = 2 | =

Hence:
( ) ( )


=
1 2
. . d . v . A p

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
. d . v
A
v
p
2
Thus: C
p
= A.Re

where C
p
= pressure coefficient
Problems with this approach
1) Must have a complete list of parameters - never certain of this.
Could do some tests with different fluids on sphere to check.

In this example, one parameter has been omitted -
the roughness of the sphere

2) We have predicted that C
p
o Re

because we assumed that

the pressure is proportional to a power law in the parameters.

However, this may be oversimplified (as it does not consider
other types of functions (e.g. logarithms, hyperbolic functions
etc.)

Should say:
(Re) f C ... Re A Re A C
p p
= + + =
2 1
2 1

4.1. Buckinghams Theorem
A relationship between M parameters involving n independent
dimensions can be expressed in terms of M-n dimensionless groups.

From the Phase rule - M quantities, n constraints
gives M-n degrees of freedom

Dimensions are Unit Symbol
Mass kg M
Electric current A I
Length m L
Time s T
Temperature K u
Quantity of material mol N

Luminous intensity cd - (we will ignore
cd and A)
Method 2 Buckinghams method
Select as many parameters as there are dimensions - called the primary
variables - and use them to make the other variables dimensionless.

E.g. p = f ( v, d, , )
Since we have 3 dimensions ( M, L, T ),
we need 3 primary variables (almost any 3 will do). Select , v, d.
We have to make p and dimensionless.

(Capital t)
c b
a
c b a
L L
T
M
L
LT
M
d v
p
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
1
3
2
1

H
must be
dimensionless
Powers in M: 1 - a = 0 a = 1
T: -2 + b = 0 b = 2
L: -1 + 3a - b - c = 0 c= 0
2
1
v
p

H =
c b
a
c b a
L L
T
M
L
LT
M
d v
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
1
3
2

H
Hence: a = 1; b = 1; c = 1
Re d . v .
1
2
= =

H
Generates convenient groups - not necessarily the most convenient,
but satisfactory.

Method 3 Common Sense Method
4.2. e.g. Drag force on a sphere in a flowing fluid.
F = f (d, v, , )
LT
M
,
L
M
,
T
L
, L
T
ML
3 2
5 parameters, 3 dimensions...
...hence 2 dimensionless groups
By inspection we select the Reynolds number, Re = .v.d/
Second group must contain F in order to solve the problem in hand:
F:

We must eliminate M - we have 2 choices, to use either or .
- highly variable - convenient to keep in as few groups as
possible, and its already in Re so use .
2
T
ML
2
4 3
2
T
L
M
L
.
T
ML F
=

Now eliminate T - could use either v or

2
2
2
2
4
2
L
L
T
T
L
v
F
=

Finally use d to eliminate L

=
2
2
2 2
L
L
d v
F

If we had instead used to eliminate M,

T
L
M
LT
T
ML F
2
2
=

vd
d v
F
vd
F
L
L
T
T
L
v
F
= =
2 2
2
would have
been obtained
Product of original group and Re
Most convenient to use and Re
2 2
d v
F

Define a drag coefficient:

( ) ( )
2 2
4 2
1
d v
F
C
D
t

=
C
D

Re
Stokes Law
C
D
= 24/Re
Schematic graph of
experimental data for
drag coefficients of
spheres as a function
of Re
At low Reynolds number i.e. Re < 1 - use Stokes Law

F = 6tva = 3tvd
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Re vd
d v
vd
d v
F
C
D
24 24
4 2
1
3
4 2
1
2 2 2 2
= = = =

t
t

For Re > 1 the flow pattern is very complicated - so very little

theory exists to predict the relationship between C
D
and Re.
Forces on smooth spheres - Experimental results

Re < 1000

1000 < Re < 10
5
C
D
= 0.44

Re > 10
5
C
D
= 0.1

Critical Re of 10
5
depends on surface roughness.

4.2 Example - Determining Drag Forces when Designing Ships

Ships travel over the sea where there are waves. Waves involve
vertical displacements. Therefore gravity is involved.

Assume drag force, F = f(d, v, , , g)
where d is a characteristic dimension of the ship, v is the velocity of
the ship, and and are the properties of the liquid on which it floats.
( )
687 0
15 0 1
24
.
D
Re .
Re
C + =
We have: six parameters, 3 dimensions - thus 3 groups

Choose standard groups:

vd
Re =
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 2 2 2
2
1
4
v . . . d .
F
or
v . . d
F
C
D

Third group must contain g:

d . g
v
d
v
~
T
L
2 2
2

is dimensionless
and is called the
Froude number
All three groups are independent, since: only Re contains
only C
D
contains F
only Fr contains g
In order to make a model ship to enable the drag force on the real ship
to be determined, need to operate at the same Reynolds and Froude
numbers as the full size ship by e.g. changing the speed or fluid.
5. Turbulent Flow Through Pipes
L
L
Consider length L - measure pressure drop AP.
Next section of pipe - same pressure drop - unless there is a marked
change in density. Unless the velocity is large ~ 100 m/s OR the
pipe is very long, density changes will be small.

Overall pressure drop o Length of tube
Consider length L of diameter D:
P
Flow
t
L
P - AP
t = wall shear stress
( ) DL
D
P P
D
P tt
t
A
t
+ =
4 4
2 2
L
D . P
4
A
t =
Constant along
tube
In turbulent flow, need to consider any 2 of the 3 properties t, D and
AP/L. It is convenient to work in terms of t and D.

t = f( v, D, , ) where v = Q/A i.e. the mean velocity

Have 5 parameters and 3 dimensions thus there are 2 dimensionless
groups, of which the Re is the obvious and convenient one.

2nd group includes t which is a force/unit area =
2 2 2
LT
M
L T
ML
=
Eliminate mass by either (or )
2
2
2
2 3
2
v
v ~
T
L
M
L
.
LT
M

t
= =
is dimensionless
5.1. Fannings Friction Factor is defined as:
2
2
1
v
C
f

t
=
Note: There are other definitions of friction factor
Darcy Weissbach Friction Factor = 4C
f

(used mainly by civil engineers)

Coulson & Richardson define friction factor as


For a smooth walled pipe C
f
= f(Re) only
In laminar flow:
2
v
t
4
8
a
LQ
P
t

A =
where v = Q/ta
2
and D = 2a
2 2
32 4
8
D
LV
P
D
LV P

A A = =
D
v
L
D . P A
t
8
4
= =
From force
balance:
Re D . v .
v
C
f
16
16
2
1
2
= = =

t
Valid for Re<2200 (Laminar flow)
5.1.1.
For Turbulent Flow there is no simple theory and we must rely on
experimental results
Note on log-log co-ordinates C
f
= 16/Re is a straight line of slope
-1, as far as Re~2200.
16/Re theory
Laminar
Experimental results
for turbulent flow
Log
C
f

Log Re
Re~2200
Region of
uncertainty
Approximation (see below)
In the range 2200<Re<5x10
5
-is the best fit straight line to early part of experimental curve and is
known as the Blasius Equation
4 1
079 0
/
f
Re . C

=
By definition:
2
2
1
v
C
f

t
=
From the force balance over the whole pipe:
L
D . P
4
A
t =
f
C . v .
D
L
H . g . P
2
2
1 4
A A = =
By substituiton:
Hence lost head due to friction:
gD
L v C
H
f
2
4
2
= A
Example:
Water flows at 20 m/s in a 3 cm diameter pipe of length 100 m. What is
the frictional pressure drop?
67416
10 89 0
1000 03 0 0 2
3
=

= =

.
. . . D . v
Re

>> 2000, thus turbulent
< 10
5
, thus Blasius region
00490 0 67416 079 0
4 1
. . C
/
f
= =

Pa . . . P m .
. .
.
H
5
2
10 307 1 81 9 1000 3 13 3 13
03 0 81 9 2
100 20 00490 0 4
= = =


= A A
In the previous example the pipe was horizontal. Now consider an
inclined pipe with no pressure drop.
13.3 m
P
a
P
a
Pressure drop due to gravity
is able to drive the fluid flow
against the frictional resistance.
A general head loss has contributions from frictional pressure drop and
change in elevation:
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
g
P
h H

A A
For a pipe with an upward elevation of 10 m in the direction of flow:
Require a pressure drop of ( 13.3 + 10 )g = 2.29 bar
Frictional
loss
Change in
elevation
Example: A reservoir at an elevation of 50 m supplies water
through a 15 cm diameter pipe of length 3 km. What is the flow rate?
Use:
=
gD
L v C
H
f
2
4
2
A
15 0 81 9 2
3000
15 0 1000
10 89 0
079 0 4 50
2
4 1
3
. .
v
v .
.
.
/


|
|
.
|

\
|

=

s / m . v v .
/
90 1 90 15 50
4 7
= = ( ) s / m . . . Q
3 2
034 0 90 1 15 0
4
= =
t
Have used Blasius equation, thus must check that Re is in the right
range: Re = 1.90x0.15x1000/(0.89x10
-3
) = 3.23x10
5
- OK, just
5.1.2 Rough Pipes
The Blasius equation is for smooth pipes but real pipes are rough.
c = average height of
roughness elements
t = f( , , v, D, c ) - 3 dimensionless groups

Use: C
f
, Re, c/D

Colebrook came up with the following empirical (experimental) result:
(a = pipe radius)
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
f f
C Re
.
a
ln . .
C
33 9
74 1 46 3
1 c
From this result, it can be seen that if Re is large, then C
f
is independent
of Re. If Re large use:
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
c
D
ln . .
C
f
74 1 25 3
1
D = tube
diameter
For a typical glass tube with D = 3mm:
D/c = 3x10
-2
/2x10
-6
= 1.5x10
-4

At large Re, C
f
= 0.0028

At a typical Re of 10
5
a smooth tube has C
f
= 0.0044
Log
C
f

Log Re
0.0044
10
5

0.0028
Smooth tube
Real glass tube
A real tube is effectively smooth at Re = 100,000
5.1.3. Pressure Losses in Pipe Bends and other Fittings
Bends, valves, junctions, sudden expansions and contractions
- all cause pressure losses where:

v
2
/2g appears in Bernoullis equation and is called a velocity head.

Losses can be tabulated in terms of a number of velocity heads.

Entry Losses
Two contributions:
(1) Gain of kinetic energy = v
2
/2g
Not really a loss, but a transfer
from pressure energy to KE.
Could be recovered by putting a
diffuser at the pipe exit (not usual).
Thus have an entry loss of 1 velocity head
- due to unrecovered KE at the exit.
g
v
H v P
2
2
A A
(2) Additional (true) loss
due to generation of
turbulence downstream
of vena contracta
Expressing Losses as Equivalent Pipe Lengths
As an alternative to velocity heads it is possible to express losses in
pipe fittings in terms of the equivalent length of pipe (with the same
pressure drop but due to friction).
Assuming C
f
=0.005 (a typical value) then:

or one velocity head lost if pipe length is given by:
gD
L v .
H
2
005 0 4
2

= A
D L or
D
L .
50
02 0
1 = =
Equivalent Pipe Length for bends etc. = No. of velocity heads x 50D

Concept of equivalent pipe length is based on the assumption that
C
f
= 0.005 - which may NOT be true.

Method of Equivalent Pipe Lengths is convenient for calculations but
is not very accurate.
Typical Losses in Pipe Fittings
No. of Velocity
Heads Lost
Equivalent Pipe
Length
90
o
standard bend 0.75 38D
90
o
bend - large
radius
0.45 23D
90
o
bend - square
or mitre
1.3 65D
Straight through T-
junction
0.4 20D
To, or from, T-
junction side
branch
1.0 50D
Gate valve (open) 0.17 9D
Pressure Drop in Pipes - Example
Typical domestic water supply. Find the flow through 20 m of 1 cm dia.
pipe containing 8 right-angle bends and a 3/4 open gate valve under a
head difference of 8.0 m. You may assume that the losses in the gate
valve are equal to 45D equivalent pipe lengths or 0.9 velocity heads.

(1) Using Equivalent Pipe Lengths

Equivalent Length = 20 + (8x38 + 45 + 50)x0.01 = 23.99 m
Actual
length
Bends
Valve
Entry
Pipe dia.
01 0 81 9 2
99 23
01 0 1000
10 89 0
079 0 4
2
4
2
4 1
3 2
. .
. v
. v
.
.
gD
L v C
H
/
f


|
|
.
|

\
|

= =

A
s / m . v . v v . .
/ /
541 1 132 2 753 3 0 8
4 7 4 7
= = =
s / l . . . Q 121 0 541 1 01 0
4
2
= =
t
(This is not a very accurate estimate
as we have effectively assumed
C
f
= 0.005 )
(2) Using Velocity Heads
( )
g
v
.
.
C
g
v
.
D
L C
g
v
. .
gD
L v C
H
f f f
2
9 7
01 0
20 4
2
9 7
4
2
1 9 0 75 0 8
2
4
2 2 2 2
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
.
|

\
|
+ = + + + = A
Bends
Valve Entry
( )
g
v
. C .
f
2
9 7 8000 0 8
2
+ =
Difficulties now arise because
we cannot evaluate C
f
until
we know v.
Equation (1) can be solved if we can substitute in an expression for
C
f
in terms of v, such as the Blasius correlation:
(1)
4 1
079 0
/
f
Re . C

=
g
v
.
v .
.
.
.
.
/
2
9 7
01 0 1000
10 89 0
079 0
01 0
20 4
0 8
2
4 1
3
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

=

2 4 7
403 0 13 3 0 8 v . v . .
/
+ =
(2)
The simplest way of solving equation (2) is to re-arrange it into a
suitable form such that it can be solved by successive substitution.
Equation (2) can be re-arranged into the form:
4 1
13 3 403 0
0 8
2
/
v . .
.
v

+
=
(3)
We can guess an estimated value of v, substitute into the right hand side
and calculate a better value of v from the left hand side. This step can be
repeated until the solution converges to the correct value.

A quick way for getting an acceptable initial guess is to assume that
v
7/4
~ v
2
. Thus from equation (2):
s / m . v
. .
.
v 505 1
13 3 403 0
0 8
2
=
+
=
Substituting this value into Equation (3) gives:
( )
s / m . v
. . .
.
v
/
574 1
505 1 13 3 403 0
0 8
4 1
2
=
+
=

Repeating gives:
( )
s / m . v
. . .
.
v
/
5817 1
574 1 13 3 403 0
0 8
4 1
2
=
+
=

Repeating again gives: v = 1.5826 m/s

Alternatively Equation (2) can be solved using the Newton-Raphson
method.
Direction of Flow Determination with Head Loss Equation
2
2
2
4
kv
D
L v C
P
f
= =

A
where k is a constant
To a first approximation AP o v
2

If we were to reverse the flow in a pipe - we replace v with -v
( )
2 2
v v P = A
Reverse flow and pressure losses due to
friction are exactly the same.
Strictly we should write the equation in the form:
- so that AP changes sign when v changes sign.

v kv P = A
Example: 2 reservoirs at different heights - which way is the flow
in pipe BC?
A
B
C
D
to atmosphere
30 m
v
1

h
v
3

Direction
uncertain
v
2

20 m
All three pipes of length 200 m and 0.03 m dia. (ignore entry losses)

Head at C =

Pipe AC:
h
g
P
H
C
+ =

( )
2
1
2
1
80 6
03 0 81 9 2
200 005 0 4
30 v .
. .
v .
H =


=
(1)
Pipe BC:
2
2
80 6 20 v . H =
(2)
Pipe CD: H = 6.80 v
3
2

(3)
Apply Continuity (Conservation of Mass) at pipe junction:
2 1 3 2 2 1 1 3 3
v v v v A v A v A = =
(4)
Solve for the 2 possible permutations, see which is reasonable
(the +/- in eqn. (2) and (4) are linked)

v
2
is down the pipe provided there is a positive root for v
2
taking the
positive signs in eqs. (2) and (4).

If the flow is up the pipe, then on inserting negative signs in eqs. (2)
and (4) we would obtain a positive root for v
2.
The first option is correct.
v
1
= 1.27 m/s, v
2
= 0.40 m/s, v
3
= 1.67 m/s, H = 19.0 m
Other alternative has no positive root for v
2
.

In this case it is obvious that flow is from reservoir B.
This can be seen as follows:
- if we close pipe BC then:
v
1
= v
3

Head loss in AC = Head loss in CD
Hence, H
C
= 15 m

But B is 20 m above D, thus H
B
= 20 m. Thus there is a head difference
of 5 m in the closed pipe BC, so when the valve is opened flow is from
B to C.
5.2. Velocity Distribution for Turbulent Flow in Pipes
There is no theory, just experimental results.
To a good approximation the velocity distribution in the pipe is given
by:


which is known as the 1/7th Power Law.

It is valid for 5000 < Re < 10
5


u = average velocity at a point a distance y
from the wall
u
1
= centre line velocity
a = pipe radius


u
y y
7 1
1
/
a
y
u
u
|
.
|

\
|
=
r y
y = a - r
The 1/7th Power Law is a good approximation but is not perfect.
The velocity gradient is:

Thus at the centre line is given by:

but it must be zero, since the shear stress is zero on the centre line
by symmetry.
In addition, at the wall (y=0): which cannot be.

Volumetric Flow Rate

7 6
7 1
1
7
/
/
y
a
u
dy
du

=
a
u
dy
du
7
1
=
=
dy
du
( )dy y a
a
y
u dr . r . u Q
a
/
a

}
|
.
|

\
|
=
}
=
0
7 1
1
0
2 2 t t
120
49
2
15
7
8
7 2
2
1
0
7 15 7 8
7 1
1
. a u y ay
a
u
a
/ /
/
t
t
=
(

=
(where r = (a-y) )
Define a mean velocity:
60
49
1
2
= = u
a
Q
u
m
t
or u
1
= 1.22 u
m


Compare with laminar flow where u
1
= 2 u
m
.
There is a much flatter velocity profile in turbulent flow.

1/7th Power Law works well within the turbulent flow in the core of
the pipe. However turbulence is supressed near the walls. There is
a narrow region of laminar flow near the wall. This is known as the
Laminar Sub-Layer and is very narrow.

Throughout the Laminar Sub-Layer the shear stress t ~ t
w
i.e. the shear
stress at the wall.
If laminar, which is the velocity profile
within the Laminar Sub-Layer.
(N.B. used no-slip B.C.)
and the 1/7th Power Law is obeyed in the rest of the pipe.

t
t
y
u
dy
du
w
= =
u
y
Laminar
sub-layer
(LSL) 1/7 Power Law
o
L

= thickness of laminar sub-layer
Numerical Example
Water is flowing at a mean velocity of 1.5 m/s in a 2.5 cm dia. pipe.
42135
10 89 0
1000 025 0 5 1
3
=

=

.
. .
Re
(i.e. turbulent flow)
Turbulent core
(TC)

t y
u
w
=
The presence of the
Laminar Sub-Layer
influences the rate
of heat & mass
transfer from the
wall to the bulk
fluid.
Blasius:
00551 0 079 0
4 1
. Re . C
/
f
= =

By definition:
2 2 2
20 6 5 1 1000
2
00551 0
2
1
m / N . .
.
u C
m f w
= = = t
y
.
y . y
u
w
6970
10 89 0
20 6
3
=

= =

t
Velocity profile in LSL
s / m . u u
m
837 1
49
60
1
= =
7 1
7 1
425 3
0125 0
837 1
/
/
y .
.
y
. u =
|
.
|

\
|
=
1/7 Power Law in TC
The profiles intersect at y = o
L

mm . .
L
/
L L
139 0 425 3 6970
7 1
= = o o o
Revision and
Background: Classical
Mechanics
1) Newtons laws of motion
2) Forces and force diagrams
3) Motion in a circle
Definitions of Terms

Scalar:- quantity possessing only magnitude

Vector:- quantity possessing both magnitude and direction
Vectors are generally denoted by bold or underlined characters

Momentum = product of the mass of a body and its velocity
= m x v
N.B. momentum is a vector

QFS: Which of these are vectors and which are scalars?
Velocity, speed, acceleration, temperature, force

Work = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force
(Units: N.m or J)



Position, Velocity and Acceleration

If a particle has a 1D co-ordinate position: x,

then its velocity is given by:


and its acceleration is given by:


More generally, a particle has a position vector:

and velocity:


and acceleration:
-
= = x
dt
dx
v
x
dt
x d
dt
dv
a
--
= = =
2
2
( ) z , y , x r =
|
.
|

\
|
=
dt
dz
,
dt
dy
,
dt
dx
v
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
dt
z d
,
dt
y d
,
dt
x d
a
Newtons Laws of Motion
1) A body continues in a state of rest or motion
in a straight line at constant speed unless a force
acts on the body.
2) Force is equal to the rate of change of
momentum ( F = (d/dt)(m.v) = m.a ).
3) To each action there is an equal and
opposite reaction
Conservation of Momentum
m
1

v
1

m
2

v
2

Two interacting particles
(e.g. by gravity or electrostatic
forces)

Total momentum of the system
= P = ( m
1
v
1
+ m
2
v
2
)
( )
2 2 1 1
v . m v . m
dt
d
dt
P d
+ =
= m
1
a
1
+ m
2
a
2


= F
1
+ F
2


= 0
But by Newtons 3rd law: F
1
= -F
2

By Newtons 2nd law: F = m.a
Momentum is a constant over time and thus is conserved
N
F = N
mg
u
Force Diagram
Resolving down slope: m.g.sinu - F = m.a
Resolving perpendicular to slope: N - m.g.cosu = 0
a
u
Conservation of Energy
Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but only changed from
one form to another

Can be derived from the symmetry principle that the Laws of Nature
are constant in time.

Energy can come in the forms of:
Kinetic energy m.v
2
/2
Potential energy m.g.h
Heat, Light, Sound etc.

An elastic collision between two particles is when NO kinetic energy
is converted into other forms of energy. A collision where kinetic
energy is lost is called an inelastic collision.
Motion in a circle
u
v
For circular motion:

The position x is replaced
by the angle u (radians)

The velocity is replaced
by the angular velocity
(a.k.a. angular frequency)




The tangential velocity, v
is equal to: v = e.r
-
= = u
u
e
dt
d
0
Radius, r
rads./s
Acc.
= e
2
.r
= v
2
/r
Period of rotation = T (sec.)
and e = 2t/T
Moments and Torque
Forces generate linear momentum, whereas torques generate
angular momentum (motion in a circle).
m
1
g
x
1

m
2
g
x
2

If the lever is to balance then the moments about the
fulcrum must balance:
m
1
gx
1
=m
2
gx
2

Torque (=turning force)
O r
u
F
A force F has its direction inclined at
an angle u to the length of a rod which
is free to turn about a pivot O.

What happens when a force is applied to a rod that is not tangential,
but is in a direction inclined at an angle u with respect to the rod?

The force can be resolved into its components, a radial component
F.cosu directed along the rod towards the pivot point O, and a
component F.sinu perpendicular to the rod.

Th radial component only tends to compress the rod. However, the
tangential component will give rise to a rotation.
Torque
The torque which gives rise to the rotation is due to the
tangential component of the force and is given by:



If I were represented by a vector, the vector would have a magnitude:



where u is the angle between the directions of r and F. In general the
Torque is the vector (cross) product of any general r and F:
u sin . .r F T =
u sin . .r F T T = =
u sin F r F r T = =