Process Capability

Process Capability
Process Capability is an important concept in SPC. Process capability examines -- the variability in process characteristics -- whether the process is capable of producing products which conforms to specifications

Process Capability
Process capability studies distinguish between conformance to control limits and conformance to specification limits (also called tolerance limits) -- if the process is in control, then virtually all points will remain within control limits -- staying within control limits does not necessarily mean that specification limits are satisfied -- specification limits are usually dictated by customers

Process Capability: Concepts

The following distributions show different process scenarios. Note the relative positions of the control limits and specification limits.

Process Capability: Concepts

In control and product meets specifications. Control limits are within specification limits
UCL: Upper Control Limits LCL: Lower Control Limits USL: Upper Specification Limits LSL: Lower Specification Limits

Process Capability: Concepts

In control but some products do not meet specifications. Specification limits are within control limits

Data from process with medium capability

relative capability

Data from process with low capability

Data from process with high capability

Process capability: capability index

The capability index is defined as: Cp = (allowable range)/6 =T (Tolerance)/ 6= (USL - LSL)/6s

The distribution of process quality is often assumed to be approximated with a normal distribution. Px3=99.73%,

Normal Distribution
The normal distribution N(,2) has several distinct properties: --The normal distribution is bell-shaped and is symmetric --The mean, , is located at the centre -- is the standard deviation of the data

f (x)

=0.5 =1 =2

0
f (x)

The smaller the steeper the curve For same changing the value of is to move the curve without any change in its shape

3 Principle
0.9974
The probability for X to fall within (3,+3)is 99.74%, and the probability for falling outside this interval is only 0.26% which is considered almost impossible. That characteristic of normal distribution is called 3 principle. Applying this principle in QM can judge whether there is abnormity appearing in the process, since three standard deviations above and below the process mean represent almost all the fluctuation range of the process.

-3

+3

XN(,2) P{-<X<+}=(1)-(-1)=2(1)-1=0.6826 P{-2<X<+2}=2(2)-1=0.9544 P{-3<X<+3}=2(3)-1=0.9974

Process capability: capability index

The capability index (T/6) show how well a process is able to meet specifications. The higher the value of the index, the more capable is the process: -- Cp < 1 (process is unsatisfactory) -- 1 < Cp < 1.6 ( process is of medium relative capability) -- Cp > 1.6 (process shows high relative capability): better to analyze the actual specifications (Tolerance) and process technics to save resources in enhancing the process capability, such as the increased accuracy of equipment.

Process capability: process performance index

The capability index -- considers only the spread of the characteristic in relation to specification limits -- assumes two-sided specification limits The product can be bad if the mean is not set appropriately. The process performance index takes account of the mean () and is defined as: Cpk = min[ (USL - )/3, ( - LSL)/3]

Process capability: process performance index

The process performance index can also accommodate one sided specification limits -- for upper specification limit: Cpk = (USL - )/3 -- for lower specification limit: Cpk = ( - LSL)/ 3

Process capability: the message

The message from process capability studies is: -- first reduce the variation in the process -- then shift the mean of the process towards the target This procedure is illustrated in the diagram below:

Basic Forms of Statistical Sampling for Quality Control

Sampling to determine if the process is within acceptable limits (Statistical Process Control).

Sampling to accept or reject the immediate lot of product at hand (Acceptance Sampling).

Process Control

Process Control is concerned with monitoring quality while the production or service is being conducted.

Statistical Process Control -- Control Charts

Normal Behavior

UCL

LCL 1 UCL 2 3 4 5 6 Samples over time

Possible problem, investigate

LCL 1 UCL 2 3 4 5 6 Samples over time

Possible problem, investigate

LCL 1 2 3 4 5 6 Samples over time

Control charts
Processes that are not in a state of statistical control -- show excessive variations -- exhibit variations that change with time A process in a state of statistical control is said to be statistically stable. Control charts are used to detect whether a process is statistically stable. Control charts differentiates between variations -- that is normally expected of the process due chance or common causes -- that change over time due to assignable or special causes

Control charts: common cause variations

Variations due to common causes -- have small effect on the process -- are inherent in the process because of:

the nature of the system the way the system is managed the way the process is organized and operated making modifications to the process changing the process

-- can only be removed by

-- are the responsibility of higher management

Control charts: special cause variations

Variations due to special causes are -- localized in nature -- exceptions to the system -- considered abnormalities -- often specific to a certain operator certain machine certain batch of material, etc. Investigation and removal of variations due to special causes are key to process improvement Note: Sometimes the delineation between common and special causes may not be very clear.

Control charts: how they work

The principles behind the application of control charts are very simple and are based on the combined use of -- run charts -- hypothesis testing The control limits most commonly used in organizations are plus and minus three standard deviations. We know from statistics that the chance that a sample mean will exceed three standad deviations, in either direction, due simply to chance variation, is less than 0.3 percent (i.e., 3 times per 1000 samples). Thus, the chance that a sample will fall above the UCL, or below the LCL because of natural random causes is so small that this occurrence is strong evidence of assignable variation.

Control charts: how they work

The procedure is to -- sample the process at regular intervals -- plot the statistic (or some measure of performance), e.g. mean range variable number of defects, etc. -- check (graphically) if the process is under statistical control -- if the process is not under statistical control, do something about it

Control charts: types of charts

Different charts are used depending on the nature of the charted data. Commonly used charts are: -- for continuous (variables) data Shewhart sample mean (x-chart) Shewhart sample range (R-chart) Shewhart sample (X-chart) Cumulative sum (CUSUM) Exponentially Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) chart Moving-average and range charts -- for discrete (attributes and countable) data sample proportion defective (p-chart) sample number of defectives (np-chart) sample number of defects (c-chart) sample number of defects per unit (u-chart)

Control charts: assumptions

Control charts make assumptions about the plotted statistic, namely -- it is independent, i.e. a value is not influenced by its past value and will not affect future values -- it is normally distributed, i.e. the data has a normal probability density function

Normal Probability Density Function

The assumptions of normality and independence enable predictions to be made about the data.

Control charts: interpretation

Control charts are normal distributions with an added time dimension.

Control charts: interpretation

Control charts are run charts with superimposed normal distributions.

Control charts: run rules

Run rules are rules that are used to indicate out-ofstatistical control situations. Typical run rules for Shewhart X-charts with control and warning limits are: -- a point lying beyond the control limits -- 2 consecutive points lying beyond the warning limits, namely within the area of 2 ~3 or even beyond the control limits -- 7 or more consecutive points lying on one side of the mean -- 5 or 6 or more consecutive points going in the same direction (indicates a trend) -- Other run rules can be formulated using similar principles

attention

investigate Prompt action

UCL

CL

LCL

Trend
UCL

CL

LCL

Control charts: run rules

If only chance variation is present in the process, the points plotted on a control chart will not typically exhibit any pattern. If the points exhibit some systematic pattern, this is an indication that assignable variation may be present and corrective action should be taken.

Attribute Measurements (p-Chart)

Given:
T o ta l N u m b e r o f D e fe c tiv e s p = T o ta l N u m b e r o f O b s e rv a tio n s
sp = p (1- p) n

Compute control limits:

UCL = p + 3sp LCL = p - 3sp

Example of Constructing a p-chart:

1. Calculate the sample proportions, p (these are what can be plotted on the pchart) for each sample.
Sample 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 n 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 Defectives 4 2 5 3 6 4 3 7 1 2 3 2 2 8 3 p 0.04 0.02 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.03

Example of Constructing a p-chart:

2. Calculate the average of the sample proportions.

55 p = = 0.036 1500
3. Calculate the standard deviation of the sample proportion

sp =

p (1 - p) = n

.036(1- .036) = .0188 100

Example of Constructing a p-chart:

4. Calculate the control limits.
UCL = p + 3sp LCL = p - 3sp

.036 3(.0188)

UCL = 0.0924 LCL = -0.0204 (or 0)

Example of Constructing a p-chart:

5. Plot the individual sample proportions and the control limits
p 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.1 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Sample number

UCL UCL

CL