Data Collection Methods

Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of research study. Inaccurate data collection can impact the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. To derive conclusions from data, we need to know how the data were collected; that is, we need to know the methods of data collection. In business research, data is collected from various sources and a variety of methods or techniques are used in its collection. It may be from a secondary source or primary source. In case of primary source, it could be census or survey, laboratory experiment or field experiment, open or hidden observation.

Methods of Data Collection

1. Observation
Observation means viewing or seeing. Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting or the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation as a method includes both 'seeing' and 'hearing.' It is accompanied by perceiving as well.

Types of Observation
Structured and unstructured observation Participant, quasi-participant and non-participant obs. Controlled and non-controlled observation

 Structured Observation
When the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed, the manner of recording the observed information, standardized condition of observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation is called as structured observation.

Unstructured Observation
Early phase of the research may become specific to when and where to observe, what specific aspects of the setting or behavior to observe, and how to make and record observations.

 Participant Observation
This depend on degree of involvement of the researcher, the researcher who may be an outsider, while observing the group, also play the role of a group member. Observer participates actively, for an extended period of time. May require observer to live or work in that area Assumes that observer will become accepted member of the group or community.

 Quasi-participant Observation
In the absence of any standard set of relationship or role patterns for the outsider who is always present and never participating, both the group and the outsider are likely to feel uncomfortable. In this the observer assumes several role. Sometimes he is a participant, at other times he is in the role of an interviewer, a stranger or a listener. He makes clear to the group that his purpose is to gather facts.

 Non-participant Observation
In non participant observation, the researcher observe the group or community while maintaining physical and psychological isolation from them.

Controlled Observation
When observation take place according to a definite prearranged plan, involving experimental procedure, it is called controlled observation.

Non-controlled Observation
It is When the researcher observes the behavior and activities of a group under natural condition without any stimulation from outside. The observer can easily check the correctness of his information as often as desired.

2. Survey
The Survey method is the technique of gathering data by asking questions to people who are thought to have desired information. A formal list of questionnaire is prepared. Generally a non disguised approach is used. The respondents are asked questions on their demographic interest opinion. Surveys can be divided into two broad categories: the interview and the questionnaire :-

a) Interview
An interview is a conversation between two people (the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain information from the interviewee.

 Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined

questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewees nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer goes with the flow. General interview guide approach - the guide approach is intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.

Standardized, open-ended interview - the same openended questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.

 Closed, fixed-response interview - where all interviewees are

asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing.

b) Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. It is the list of a research or survey questions asked to respondents, and designed to extract specific information. Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile data.

Qualitative Techniques of data collection.

Why is it that people continue to smoke when the evidence

about harmful effects of smoking is all around them and known to those who smoke? Why do people not take the medicine prescribed for them? Why do clinicians adopt innovations of unproven effectiveness while failing to adopt innovations of proven effectiveness? What difference has the involvement of doctors in management made to the management of health services?

These are questions not easily answered by the quantitative research designs used commonly within the medical profession. They are however the type of questions
best answered by qualitative research methods instead. An area of research which has really gained momentum in recent years, qualitative research is often regarded in some sense as competing with the more established quantitative research.

There are three main methods for collecting data in qualitative research:-

Focus groups
For this method the researcher brings together a small number of subjects to discuss the topic of interest. The group size is kept deliberately small, so that its members do not feel intimidated but can express opinions freely. A topic guide to aid discussion is usually prepared beforehand and the researcher usually chairs the group, to ensure that a range of aspects of the topic are explored. The discussion is frequently tape-recorded, then transcribed and analysed.
Direct observation Data can be collected by an external observer, referred to as a non-participant observer. Or the data can be collected by a participant observer, who can be a member of staff undertaking usual duties while observing the processes of

care. In this type of study the researcher aims to become immersed in or become part of the population being studied, so that they can develop a detailed understanding of the values and beliefs held by members of the population.
Example: Johnson and Webb (1995) used observation to gather evidence about how value judgements made by staff and patients can impact on decision making. In this study, the researcher acted as a participant observer, working as a nurse on the ward while observing situations where nurses were faced with difficult moral choices. Observations were recorded as field notes and analysed for content.

 In-depth interviews Interviews use the same principle as a focus group, but subjects are interviewed individually. Interviews in qualitative research are usually wide ranging, probing issues in detail. They seldom involve asking a set of predetermined questions. they encourage subjects to express their views at length. One particularly useful technique is the critical incident study, in which subjects are asked to comment on real events rather than giving generalisations. This can reveal more about beliefs and attitudes and behaviour. The researcher may be able to obtain more detailed information for each subject, but loses the richness that can arise in a group in which people debate issues and exchange views.

Further methods used in qualitative research studies Diary methods - The researcher or subject keeps a personal account of daily events, feelings, discussions, interactions etc. Role-play and simulation - Participants may be asked to play a role, or may be asked to observe role-play, after which they are asked to rate behaviour, report feelings, and predict further events. Case-study - This is an in-depth study of just one person, group or event. This technique is simply a description of individuals.