University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Mid 19th century: the relationship between waste,

drinking water and disease was documented

1954: Dr. John Snow noted a high correlation

between cholera cases and consumption of water
form a well on Broad Street

Late 19th century: Pasteur made advances in the

germ theory of disease
 The Hydrologic Cycle and Water Quality
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Water - one of the most abundant compounds found in nature

Table 1. World Water Distribution

Volume, 1012 m3 % of total

Location
Land Areas
Freshwater lakes 125 0.009
Saline lakes and inland seas 104 0.008
Rivers (average instantaneous volume) 1.25 0.0001
Soil moisture 67 0.005
Groundwater (above depth of 4000m) 8 350 0.61
Ice caps and glaciers 29 200 2.14
Total land area (rounded) 37 800 2.8

Atmosphere (water vapor) 13 0.001

Oceans 1 320 000 97.3
Total all locations (rounded) 1 360 000 100

Source: Adapted from The Water Encyclopedia.

 University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Figure 1. Hydrologic cycle.

 Classification of Solids in Water
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Suspended or Nonfilterable Material

- consists of particles larger than molecular size that are
supported by buoyant and viscous forces within the water

Dissolved Materials
- consists of molecules or ions that are held by the molecular
structure of water

Colloids
- very small particles that technically are suspended but often
exhibit many of the characteristics of dissolved substances
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Water Pollution – the presence in water of

impurities in such quality and of such nature as to
impair the use of water for a stated purpose

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water

and Wastewater – the authoritative standard for test
procedures for many years
 Physical Water – Quality Parameters
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Physical Parameters – those characteristics of water that respond

to the senses of sight, touch, taste and smell

Suspended Solids
Sources Impacts Measurements Uses
inorganic or organic aesthetically Total Solids Test to measure the
particles displeasing - quantifies all the quality of the
solids in the water, wastewater influent
immiscible liquids provides adsorption suspended and
site for chemical dissolved, organic to monitor several
and biological and inorganic treatment processes
agents
Suspended Solids to measure the
may include Test quality of the
disease-causing - removed from effluent
organisms water by filtration

Environmental Protection Agency (EAP) – Maximum suspended-solids standard of 30 mg/L

 Turbidity
- a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

by suspended material in water

- not a direct quantitative measurement of suspended solids
Sources Impacts Measurements Uses
Erosion of colloidal aesthetically Photometric Method Normally made
material displeasing on clean waters
Adsorption Mode
Vegetable fibers and provides adsorption - measures light intensity EPA drinking
microorganisms site for harmful on the side of the vial water standards:
chemicals opposite form the light maximum of 1
source FTU
Soaps, detergents cause undesirable
American Water
and emulsifying tastes and odors Scattering Mode Works
agents -Measures light intensity Association: has
May interfere with at a 90o angle form the set 0.1 FTU
light penetration and light source
photosynthetic
reactions Readings expressed as:
formazin turbidity units
(FTUs) and nephelometry
turbidity units (NTU)
 Color
Apparent Color – partly due to suspended matter
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

True Color - contributed by dissolved solids that remain after removal

of suspended matter

Sources Impacts Measurements Uses

Organic debris – aesthetically Comparison with Indirect
yellowish brown displeasing Standardized Colored measurement
Materials of humic
Iron oxides – Unsuitable for some - Results are expressed in substances in
reddish water industries like true color units (TCUs) the water
laundering, dyeing, where 1 unit is equivalent to the
color produced by 1 mg/L of
Manganese oxides – papermaking etc. platinum in the form of
brown or blackish chlorplatinate
water Reduce the
effectiveness of
Industrial wastes chlorine as Spectrophotometer
disinfectant Techniques
 Taste and Odor
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Substances that produce an odor in water will almost invariably

impart a taste as well

Sources Impacts Measurements Uses

Inorganic aesthetically Gas or Liquid Normally made
substances displeasing Chromatography on potable
waters
Organic Material Health threat Quantitative Test
- Employ the human EPA standards: no
cause undesirable senses of taste and smell recommendation
tastes and odors Public Health
Service: maximum
of 3 TON
 Temperature
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

- one of the most important parameters in natural surface-water systems

- has an effect on most chemical reactions that occur in
natural water systems

Sources Impacts

Ambient temperature Affects the reaction rates and solubility

levels of chemicals
Use of water for dissipation and discharge
Affects other physical properties
Removal of forest canopies
 Chemical Water – Quality Parameters
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Chemical Parameters – related to the solvent capabilities of water

Total Dissolved Solids
Material remaining in the water after filtration for
the suspended-solid analysis
Sources Impacts Measurements Uses
Inorganic aesthetically Total Dissolved Solids Gross measurement
- Metals and gases displeasing color, (TDS) of the dissolved
tastes and odor - expressed as material
Organic milligrams per liter on
- Decay of Toxic and a dry-mass basis
vegetation, organic carcinogenic
chemicals and Specific Conductance
organic gases - ability of water to
conduct electricity
 Ion Balance
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Table 2. Common Ions in Natural Waters

Major constituents, Secondary Constituents,

1.0-1000 mg/L 0.01-10 mg/L
Sodium Iron
Calcium Strontium
Magnesium Potassium
Bicarbonate Carbonate
Sulfate Nitrate
Chloride Fluoride
Boron
Silica

Source: Adapted from The Water Encyclopedia.

University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Alkalinity
- the quantity of ions in water that will react to neutralize hydrogen ions

Sources Impacts Measurements Uses

CO32-, HCO3-, OH-, bitter taste Titration with an Acid Buffering
HSiO3-, H2BO3-, - Expressed as mg/L of capacity
HPO4-, H2PO4-, HS- Reactions with CaCO3 determination
and NH30 cations can foul
pipes
 Hardness
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

- The concentration of multivalent metallic cations in solutions

Carbonate Hardness – due to the presence of bicarbonates of Ca and Mg

Noncarbonate Hardness – due to the sulfates and chlorides of Ca and Mg

Carbonate Hardness

∆
Ca ( HCO3 ) 2 
 →CaCO3 + CO2 + H 2 O
∆
Mg ( HCO3 ) 2 
 →Mg (OH ) 2 + 2CO2
 Hardness
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Sources Impacts Measurements Uses

Calcium and High soap Spectrophotometer For natural
Magnesium consumption Techniques waters and on
waters
Iron, manganese, Boiler Scale intended for
strontium and drinking
aluminum Laxative effect on Titration with EDTA
unaccustomed EPA standards: no
persons recommendation

Public Health
Service: maximum
of 500 mg/L

Table 3. General Accepted Classification of Hardness

Soft < 50 mg/L as CaCO3

Moderately Hard 50 – 150 mg/L as CaCO3
Hard 150 – 300 mg/L as CaCO3
Very Hard > 300 mg/L as CaCO3
 Hardness Calculation
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Hardness in mg / L as CaCO3
2+ 50
=M (in mg / L) *
eq wt of M 2 +

Hardness in mg / L as CaCO3
= M 2 + (in meq / L) * 50

Fluoride

- associated in nature with a few types of sedimentary or igneous rocks

- toxic to humans and other animals in large quantities
- help prevent dental cavities in children (1.0 mg/L)
- Mottling is relatively common when concentration exceed 2.0 mg/L
 Metals
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

- Are soluble to some extent in water

Nontoxic Metals

Sodium – most common nontoxic metal

– corrosive to metal surfaces
– toxic to plants
– health hazard to cardiac and kidney patient

Iron and Manganese – may cause color problems

(Fe – 0.3 mg/L and Mg – 0.05 mg/L)
– used by some bacteria

Toxic Metals

- Include arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, lead, mercury and silver

 Organics
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Natural Organics – consist of the decay products of organic solids

Synthetic Organics – the results of wastewater discharges or agricultural

practices

Two Broad Categories of Dissolved Organics

Biodegradable Organics

Nonbiodegradable Organics
 Biodegradable Organics
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

– consist of organics that can be utilized for food by microorganisms

– consist of starches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes and esters
– end products of the initial decomposition of plant or animal tissue

Utilization of Dissolved Organics

(microorganisms)

Aerobic Anaerobic

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) – amount of oxygen consumed

during microbial utilization of organics
 Nonbiodegradable Organics
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

– organic materials that are resistant to biological degradation

– examples are alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS), organic pesticides,
industrial chemicals and hydrocarbon compounds combined
with chlorine

Nutrients
– elements essential to the growth and reproduction of plants and animals

Nitrogen
– constituent of proteins, chlorophyll and many other biological compounds

Methemoglobinemia – nitrate poisoning has been referred to

as the “blue baby” syndrome

Phosphorous
– constituent of soils and animal waste
– appears exclusively as phosphate in aquatic environment
 Biological Water – Quality Parameters
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Pathogens
– those organisms capable of infecting or of transmitting diseases to humans

Bacteria
– lowest form of life capable of synthesizing protoplasm from the
surrounding environment
Viruses
– smallest biological structures that contain all the genetic information
necessary for their own reproduction

Protozoa
– complete, self-contained organisms that can be free-living or parasitic,
pathogenic or nonpathogenic, microscopic or macroscopic
Helminths
– their life cycles often involve two or more animal hosts
University of San Carlos - Department of Chemical Engineering

Determine the total hardness of the following water sample

Constituent Concentration Concentration

(mg/L) (meq/L)

Ca2+ 60 3
Mg2+ 29.3 2.4