Approcahes & Problems

BY Saichandra Srivatsav Goturu 09501A0589

Introduction

Easily the greatest and most elusive intellectual challenge of the civilization. It deals with understanding the inner workings of our minds and our brains, and how the architecture of these elements is encoded in our genome. Various fields took to the challenge, from philosophy and psychology to computer science and neuroscience. Yet they all have been fraught with disagreement about the right approach. The word was coined by John McCarthy.

Definitions
Textbooks -"the study and design of intelligent agents" where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy-the science and engineering of making intelligent machines.

He claimed that a central property of humans, intelligencethe sapience of Homo sapienscan be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. Maps intelligence into mechanical hardware and enable a structure into that system to formalize thought. Instantiates an intelligent system using man-made hardware, rather than our own "biological hardware" of cells and tissues.

Some of McCarthy's colleagues in neighboring departments, however, were more interested in how intelligence is implemented in humans first. Noam Chomsky and others worked on what became cognitive science, a field aimed at uncovering the mental representations and rules that underlie our perceptual and cognitive abilities. According to them, Artificial Intelligence is the study of human intelligence such that it can be replicated artificially.

In their book Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, authors Russell and Norvig tried to categorize the definiton based on working definitions from other authors commenting on AI. The demarcation of concepts holds true to these clauses for systems that:

Think and act like humans b) Think and act rationally

a)

GOFAI (or) STRONG AI

Dominant paradigm of AI research from the middle fifties until the late 1980s. AI's first generation of researchers firmly believed their techniques would lead to real, human-like intelligence in machines. Based on the assumption "physical symbol systems hypothesis" by Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon in the middle 1960s Strong AI is artificial intelligence that matches or exceeds human intelligence.

SYNTHETIC INTELLIGENCE
Emphasizes that the intelligence of machines need not be an imitation or any way artificial; it can be a genuine form of intelligence. Sources disagree about exactly what constitutes "real" intelligence as opposed to "simulated" intelligence.Russell and Norvig present this example: "Can machines fly?" The answer is yes, because airplanes fly. "Can machines swim?" The answer is no, because submarines don't swim. "Can machines think?" Is this question like the first, or like the second?

Intelligence

Intelligence has been defined in many different ways including, but not limited to:
a)

b)
c) d) e)

abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, reasoning, learning, having emotional knowledge, retaining, planning, and problem solving

Researcher

Quotation

Alfred Binet

Judgment, otherwise called "good sense," "practical sense," "initiative," the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.[8]
The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.[9] "...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills."[10] Innate general cognitive ability[11]

David Wechsler

Lloyd Humphreys

Cyril Burt

Howard Gardner

To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.[12]

Linda Gottfredson

The ability to deal with cognitive complexity.[13]

Sternberg & Salter

Goal-directed adaptive behavior.[14]

Reuven Feuerstein

The theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation.

Types of Intelligence

Verbal the ability to use words Visual the ability to imagine things in your mind Physical the ability to use your body in various situations Musical - the ability to use and understand music Mathematical the ability to apply logic to systems and numbers Introspective the ability to understand your inner thoughts Interpersonal the ability to understand other people, and relate well to them Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart) Sensitive to living things. Gardner added this to his original list of seven years later). 9. Existential Intelligence the ability to tackle deep questions about human existence such as the meaning of life, how did we get here, and what happens when we die.

Left vs Right Brain

Left

logical sequential rational

Right Random

Intuitive Holistic

analytical
objective looks at parts systematic symbolic linear factual abstract digital

Sythesizing
Subjective Looks at wholes Non-verbal Casual Concrete Visual Sensory Spatial

Emotional

Approaches

Cybernetics and brain simulation: explored the connection between neurology, information theory, and cybernetics. Some of them built machines that used electronic networks to exhibit rudimentary intelligence, such as W. Grey Walter's turtles and the Johns Hopkins Beast.

Symbolic

Cognitive simulation Economist Herbert Simon and Allen Newell studied human problem-solving skills and attempted to formalize them, develop programs that simulated the techniques that people used to solve problems.

Logic-based
Unlike Newell and Simon, John McCarthy felt that machines did not need to simulate human thought, but should instead try to find the essence of abstract reasoning and problem solving, regardless of whether people used the same algorithms.

Anti-logic or scruffy
Researchers at MIT (such as Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert) found that solving difficult problems in vision and natural language processing required ad-hoc solutions they argued that there was no simple and general principle (like logic) that would capture all the aspects of intelligent behavior.

Knowledge-based

When computers with large memories became available around 1970, researchers began to build knowledge into AI applications. This "knowledge revolution" led to the development and deployment of expert systems (introduced by Edward Feigenbaum), the first truly successful form of AI software. The knowledge revolution was also driven by the realization that enormous amounts of knowledge would be required by many simple AI applications.

Sub-symbolic
Bottom-up, embodied, situated, behaviorbased or nouvelle AI rejected symbolic AI and focused on the basic engineering problems that would allow robots to move and survive Computational Intelligence neural networks and "connectionism, fuzzy systems and evolutionary computation, are now studied collectively as computational intelligence.

Statistical
A statistical model is a mathematical model which is modified or trained by the input of data points. developed sophisticated mathematical tools to solve specific subproblems. Critics argue that these techniques are too focused on particular problems and have failed to address the long term goal of general intelligence.

Problems of AI
Deduction, reasoning, problem solving Knowledge Representation, Commonsense knowledge.

Default reasoning & qualification problem b) The breadth of commonsense knowledge c) The subsymbolic form of some commonsense knowledge
a)

Problems of AI
Planning Learning Natural Language Processing Motion and manipulation Perception Social intelligence Creativity General intelligence

Are we going in the right direction:

There are no agreement on the definitions or approaches to any of the concepts. Understanding of the working of the various concepts involved is not accurate. It is time to refresh the approaches.

New Possibilities
Should concentrate on the principle entity that gave us the very idea of artificial intelligence- Humans. Deciphering the working of our complex functions in an algorithmic way rather than biological way. Finding alternate materials for forming the agent that perform similar functions to that of human organs.

THANK YOU