Sr. No.

1 2

OSI 7 Layers Model was first defined before implementation take place

TCP/IP 4 Layers Model defined after, protocol were implemented.

3
4 5

OSI model does not support internet working

Support connection less and connection oriented in the network layer OSI model gives guarantee of reliable delivery of packet. The protocol are better hidden and can be easily replaced as the technology changes. Separate session layer. Separate presentation layer.

TCP/IP support
Support only connection oriented in the transport layer TCP/IP does not always guarantee of reliable delivery of packet. It is not easy to replace the protocols. No session layer, characteristic are provided transport layer. No presentation layer, characteristic are provided application layer.
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

6 7 8

McGraw-Hill

Figure 7.1 Transmission medium and physical layer

7.2

Figure 7.2 Classes of transmission media

7.3

Sr. No. 1

Guided Media The signal energy is contained and guided within a solid medium. Twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, optical fiber cable are the example of guided media Used for point to point communication. Wired media lead to discrete network topologies. Additional transmission capacity can be procured by adding more wires.

Unguided Media The signal energy propagates in the form of unguided electromagnetic waves. Radio , Bluetooth, Infrared light are the example of unguided media. Used for radio broadcasting in all directions. Wireless media leads to continuous network topology. It is not possible procure additional capacity.

3 4 5

6
7

Installation is costly, time consuming and complicated.

Attenuation depends exponentially on the distance.

Installation needs less time and money,

Attenuation of proportional to square the distance.

7.4

7-1 GUIDED MEDIA

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

Twisted-Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber-Optic Cable
7.5

Figure 7.3 Twisted-pair cable

7.6

Figure 7.4 UTP and STP cables

7.7

Physical Media

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Physical Media

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Consists of 4 pairs (8 wires) of insulated copper wires typically about 1 mm thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form. Twisting reduces the interference between pairs of wires. High bandwidth attenuation channel. and High

Flexible and cheap cable.

Category rating based on number of twists per inch and the material used
CAT 3, CAT 4, CAT 5, Enhanced CAT 5 and now CAT 6.

How to Crimping

McGraw-Hill

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

Straight-Through Cable

7.16

Crossover Cable

7.17

Figure 7.5 UTP connector

7.18

Figure 7.7 Coaxial cable

7.19

Baseband and Broadband coaxial cable

A baseband coaxial cable transmits a single signal at a time at very high speed, while a broadband coaxial cable can transmit many simultaneous signals using different frequencies. A baseband cable transmits a single stream of digital data at a very high communication rate (million of bits per second) but must be amplified by every 1000 feet or so. It is mainly used for local area networks. A baseband coxial cable can carry only an analog single, so it must be used in conjunction with a modem. It is more complex to use in a network.

7.20

Table 7.2 Categories of coaxial cables

RG for Radio Government

7.21

Figure 7.8 BNC connectors

BNC stands for Bayone-Neill-concelman

7.22

Figure 7.14 Fiber construction

7.23

Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

An Optical transmission system has three key components:

1. 2. 3. The light source : A pulse of light indicates a 1 bit and the absence of light indicate a 0 bit. The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber glass. The detector generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it

7.24

Figure 7.11 Optical fiber

7.25

Types of Fiber

Plastic core and cladding Glass core with plastic cladding Glass core and glass cladding

7.26

Optical Fiber - Benefits

Greater capacity

Data rates of hundreds of Gbps

Smaller size & weight Lower attenuation Electromagnetic isolation Long distance transmission Safe and easy installation. Long term Security Greater repeater spacing

10s of km at least

7.27

Optical Fiber Disadvantage

High initial cost. Maintenance and repairing cost.

7.28

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum and its uses for communication

7.29

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Radio Frequency Characteristics

Radio waves are easy to generate. They can travel long distances. They can enter building easily so they are widely used for communications both indoors and outdoors. Radio waves are omni directional , meaning that they travel in all directions from the source, so that the transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully align physically. The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low frequencies radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls off sharply with distance from the source. Low frequency and medium frequency range cannot be used for data transfer because of their very small bandwidth.

7.30

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Table 7.4 Bands

7.31

Radio Transmission

In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth 7.32
Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Radio Transmission

In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.

7.33

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Figure 7.20 Omnidirectional antenna

7.34

Microwave Transmission

Note

Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and wireless LANs. Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls. Use directional antennas - point to point line of sight communications.
7.35

Microwave Transmission

Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in nearly straight lines and can therefore be narrowly focused. Concentrating all the energy into a small beam by means of a parabolic antenna (like the familiar satellite TV dish) gives a much higher signal-to-noise ratio, but the transmitting and receiving antennas must be accurately aligned with each other. Before the advent of fiber optics, these microwaves formed the heart of the long distance telephone transmission system. In its simplest form the microwave link can be one hop, consisting of one pair of antennas spaced as little as one or two kilometers apart, or can be a backbone, including multiple hops, spanning several thousand kilometers. A single hop is typically 30 to 60 km in relatively flat regions for frequencies in the 2 to 8 GHz bands. When antennas are placed between mountain peaks, a very long hop length can be achieved. Hop distances in excess of 200 km are in existence. The "line-of-sight" nature of microwaves has some very attractive advantages over cable systems. Line of sight is a term which is only partially correct when describing microwave paths.

7.36

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Microwave Transmission

Atmospheric conditions and certain effects modify the propagation of microwaves so that even if the designer can see from point A to point B (true line of sight), it may not be possible to place antennas at those two points and achieve a satisfactory communication performance. In order to overcome the problems of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak signals, microwave systems use repeaters at intervals of about 25 to 30 km in between the transmitting receiving stations The first repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the transmitting station and the last repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the receiving station. Two consecutive repeaters are also placed in line-of-sight of each other. The data signals are received, amplified, and re-transmitted by each of these stations

7.37

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Microwave Transmission

7.38

Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Infrared Light Wave Transmission

Unguided infrared light (waves) are widely used for short range communication. The remote controls used on televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared communication. They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build. The fact that infrared waves do not pass through solid walls well is also a plus. It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere with a similar system in adjacent rooms or buildings: you cannot control your neighbor's television with your remote control. Security of infrared system against eavesdropping is better than that of radio systems precisely for this reason, infrared light is suitable for indoor wireless LAN. For example connecting notebook computers and printers, but it is not a major player in the communication game No government license is needed to operate an infrared system.

7.39

Application of Infrared Light Wave Transmission

In remote control of home appliances : e.g. TV,DVD and VCD players. Indoor wireless LANs. Communication between in-house electronic gadgets such as keyboard, mouse, printers, scanners and for controlling fan, air conditions.

7.40

Bluetooth

The name "Bluetooth" is actually very old! It is from the 10th century Danish King Harald Bltand - or Harold Bluetooth in English Bluetooth is a specification for the use of low-power radio communications to wirelessly link phones, computers and other network devices over short distances. Instead of creating a local-area network (LAN) or a wide-area network (WAN), Bluetooth creates a personal-area network (PAN) just for you. Cell phones, for example, can be paired with wireless Bluetooth headsets. In addition to being paired with cell phones, short-range Bluetooth technology is also compatible with personal computers, laptops, printers, GPS receivers, digital cameras, telephones, video game consoles and more.

7.41

Bluetooth

Low cost as cables Secure as cables must support authentication and encryption Support both data and voice. Connect to a variety of devices. Data rates 721kbps , using the 2.45Ghz radio frequency band I.S.M (Industrial, scientific and medical) Support many simultaneous and private low power, compact and global. Connecting a computing device to a communicating device. Allows any device with a Bluetooth chip to connect to the internet while located within the range of the access point. Example- a notebook could link to the internet using a mobile phone as an access point.

7.42

7.43

Communication Satellite

A satellite is a physical object which revolves around earth at known at known height (orbit). Artificial satellites are launched into orbits for various purpose like communications. Satellite communication system offer more flexibility than submarine cables, underground cables, fiber-optics systems. With the satellite to satellite communication, it is possible to communication with any point on the globe. A satellite system basically consists of a satellite in space and many earth stations on the ground which are linked with each other through the satellite. A ground based station controls the overall operations of satellite. A satellite receives the signal transmitted from the earth station, it then processes or amplifies the signal and then it retransmits the signal back to earth in the desired form. This processing is done by a radio repeater which is also called as transponder. A communication satellite is a microwave repeater station that permit two or more users to deliver or exchange information simultaneously.

7.44

Geostationary Earth Orbit

GEO is also called as geosynchronous orbits. It has 24 hour period of revolution but are inclined with respect to equator. Orbits that are below a mean altitude of about 36,000 km periods of revolution shorter than 24 hours and hence are termed as non GEO. GEO satellite has the ability to provide coverage of an entire hemisphere at one time. Satellite are designed to last only about 15 yeas in orbit, because of service of satellite, fuel, battery cells and failed components.

7.45

Advantage of Geostationary Satellite

Keeping track of geostationary satellite is relatively easy as the satellite remains almost stationary with respect to a given earth station. The relative positions of satellite and earth station are fixed hence continuous communication is possible by one satellite only. There is no break in communication as only one satellite is to track. The coverage area on earth is very large because the height of satellite is more. Very small energy storage is required as at very high height of satellite, it is coming under high intensity solar radiations most of time. The effect of Doppler shift frequency is negligible.

7.46

Disadvantage of Geostationary Satellite

Because of higher height of satellite the propagation time for signal is much longer. Signal has to travel longer distance, greater path loss and attenuation takes place. Therefore highly sensitive are required. Satellite are designed to last only about 15 yeas in orbit, because of service of satellite, fuel, battery cells and failed components. Satellite launching mechanism must be powerful and most accurate.

7.47

Application of Geostationary Satellite

Television broadcasting Regional, national and international global communications. Telephone and data circuits. Mobile telephone services. Private networks for corporations, government agencies. Military application.

7.48

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

The altitude of MEO system is around, 1500 km to 36000 km. Satellite orbit period is about 6 hours. Transmission distance and propagation delay are greater than for LEO but still significantly less than GEO.

Advantage of MEO

MEO satellite can provide true global coverage. MEO satellite system offers lower path loss than GEO. Transmission delay is moderate. The satellite architecture is distributed, therefore it gives strength.

7.49

Disadvantage of MEO

To cover entire global large number of satellite are required typically 10 to 12 Received signal strength is variable because of range and distance angle . Doppler effect can be observed significantly. Technology is yet to mature. It increase orbital debris due to large number of satellites per system.

Application of MEO

Surveillance of earth surface. Global Positioning System (GPS). Data gathering for military.

7.50

LOW Earth Orbit (LEO)

The LEO in which satellites are at an height of approximately 1000 km and each passes a given user in only a few minutes. The advantage of using a LEO satellite network is that the range to the user is shorter, hence less power is required. The propagation delay is reduced as well. Satellite orbit period is between 1.6 and 1.8 hours. LEO satellite at height below about 1500 km are subject to atmospheric drag and a harsh radiation environment and are likely to required replacement after 5 to 8 years of operation.

7.51

Advantage of LEO

LEO satellite can provide true global coverage. LEO satellite system offers lowest path loss compared to MEO and GEO. broadcast delay is lowest.

Disadvantage of LEO

To cover entries global large number of satellite are required . Architecture and space segment is most complex. Satellite replacement rate is more than GEO and MEO

Application of LEO

In mobile satellite communication. Earth resource applications. Geological surveys.

7.52

Transmission Impairments

In any communication system, the received signal is never matching to some transmission impairments. The most important impairments are as follows.

Impairment

Attenuation Distortion

Noise

Attenuation

The strength of a signal decrease with increase in distance travelled over a medium. Attenuation means loss of energy. When signal travels over a medium or channel. To remove the attenuation better use to the amplification.

Distortion

Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and, therefore own delay in arriving at the final destination

Noise

When the data travels over a transmission medium, noise gets added to it. Noise is a major limiting factors in communication system performance. Noise can be categorized into four types as follows: 1. Thermal noise 2. Intermodulation noise 3. Crosstalk 4. Impulse noise

Thermal noise

It is the random motion of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.

Impulse noise

Impulse noise gets generated due to many reasons such as external electromagnetic disturbances, lighting etc. It does not affect the quality of analog signal to a great extent but it affect the digital data.

Intermodulation noise or induced noise

If signals at different frequencies are transmitted simultaneously on a common transmission medium then it results in intermodulation nosie.

Crosstalk noise

Crosstalk basically means interface between the adjacent telephone channels. Sometimes when talking on the telephone, you can hear another conversation in the background. That is crosstalk

Bandwidth

The range of frequencies that contain the information is called bandwidth. But the term channel bandwidth is used to describe the range of frequencies required to transmit the desired information. For example the amplitude modulation (AM) systems needs a channel bandwidth of 10 kHz to transmit a signal of 5 kHz bandwidth.

Frequency

The number of cycle per second of waves is called frequency. The data is generally in the form of pulses and pulses is a composite signal which contains many frequency.

Wavelength

The distance a simple signal can travel in one wave.

Line Configuration

Line configuration means the way two or more communication devices attach to a link. A Link is the physical communication pathway that transfers data from one device to another.

There are two possible line configurations. 1. Point-to-Point. 2. Multipoint.

Point-to-Point

A point-to-point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the channel is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point line configurations use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible as shown in Fig.

When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point line configuration between the remote control and the televisions control system.

Multipoint

A multipoint (also called multidrop) line configuration is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link as shown in Fig.

C A

Network Interface Card

Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC, workstation, or printer) has own NIC. NIC is the interface between the PC and the physical network connection. This card physically connects to the cable that links your network. The NIC fits inside the station and provided the station with a 6-byte physical address, normally written in hexadecimal format, with colon between the bytes. Example 06: 01 :02 : 01 : 2C : 4B

Network Interface Card

Prepare data NIC prepare data so that it can transmit through the cable. The card translates data bit back and forth as they go from the computer to the cable and back again. Address data Each NIC has its own unique address that it imparts to the data stream. The card provides the data with an identifier. When it goes out on to the net and enables data seeking a particular computer to known where to exit the cable. Control data flow The card has RAM on it to help it, place the data so that it doesnt overwhelm the receiving computer on the cable. Make (and agree on) the connection to another computer Before it actually sends data, the NIC an electronic dialog with the other PC on the network that wants to communicate. They agree on thing like the maximum size of data groups to be sent. The total maximum size of data (amount), the time interval between data checks the amount of time that will elapse before confirmation that the data has arrived successfully and how much data each card hold before it overflows.

Repeater

Repeater is an electronic device. It operates only in the physical layer. The basic purpose of a repeater is to extend the distance of LAN. A repeater receives signal and before it becomes too weak or corrupted, regenerates the original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal.

A repeater does not actually connect two LANs; it connects two segments of the same LAN. A repeater is not a device that can connect two LANs of different protocols. A repeater does not amplify the signal; it regenerate the signal. When it receives a weakened or corrupted signal, it creates a copy, bit for bit, at the original strength. Repeater operates at physical layer of OSI model.

Hub

All network required a central location to bring media segment together. These central locations are called hub. In hub data packet coming from one port is sent to all other ports Since every packet is sent out to every computer on the network, there is a lot of wasted transmission. This means that the network can easily become bogged down. Hubs are typically used on small networks where the amount of data going across the network is never very high. There is two type is hub Passive Hubs Active Hubs

Hub

Passive Hub

A passive hub is just a connector. A passive hub simply combines the signals of network segment. There is no signal regeneration. This type of hub is a part of the transmission media. A passive hub reduce by half the maximum cabling distance permitted. With passive hub, each computer receives the signal sent from all the other computers connected the hub.

Active Hub

An active hub is actually a multiport repeater. An active hub is that regenerate or amplifies the signals. By using active hubs the distance between devices can be increased. One disadvantage of an active hub is that they amplify noise along with the signal.

Hub

Passive Hub

A passive hub is just a connector. A passive hub simply combines the signals of network segment. There is no signal regeneration. This type of hub is a part of the transmission media. A passive hub reduce by half the maximum cabling distance permitted. With passive hub, each computer receives the signal sent from all the other computers connected the hub.

Active Hub

An active hub is actually a multiport repeater. An active hub is that regenerate or amplifies the signals. By using active hubs the distance between devices can be increased. One disadvantage of an active hub is that they amplify noise along with the signal.

Bridge
A bridge goes one step up on a hub in that it looks at the destination of the packet before sending. If the destination address is not on the other side of the bridge it will not transmit the data. Bridges provides interconnecting two or more LANs.

Purposes of bridges

1. Isolate network by MAC addresses. 2. Manage network traffic by filtering packet.

Isolate network by MAC addresses

Let us consider that you have one segment called segment 100 with 50 users in several departments using this network segment. Here one bridge is used to isolate the account departments and another bridge is used to isolate the engineering department. The bridge will only allow to pass through that are not on the local segment. The bridge will first check its routing table to see if the packet is on the local segment, if it is it will ignore the packet and not forward it to the remote segment

Manage network traffic by filtering packets.

Bridge can make a decision whether to forward the packet across the bridge, if the destination address is not on the same port or it can decide to not forward the packet if the destination is on the same ports. This process of deciding whatever or not to forward a packet is termed filtering packets network traffic is managed by dividing which packets can pass through the bridge. The bridge filters packets.

Type of bridge

Transparent Bridge

These bridges examine the MAC address of the frames to determine whether the packet is on the local segment or on the distant segment. Each bridge required to manually build the routing table. This manually building a routing table is called fixed/static routing.

Source Routing Bridges

The main idea of source routing is that each station should determine the route to the destination when it wants to send a frame and therefore include the route information in the header of the frame. In general when a station wants to transmit a frame to another station on the different LAN, the station consult its routing table. If the route to destination is found, then the station simply inserts the routing information into the frame.

Source Routing Bridges

How Discover a route ?

The station who wants to discover a route first broadcasts a special frame called route broadcasts frame.

This frame will visit every LAN exactly once and eventually reaches the destination.
Then the destination station responds with another special frame called the all route special frame which generate all possible routes back to source station After collecting all routes the source chooses the best possible route and save it.

Router

Routers are internetwork connectivity devices. An internetwork may consists of two or more physical connected independent network. These networks can be of different type. Delivering packets according to logical network address is called routing. Routers performs routing. Routing is the process of finding a path from a source to every destination in the network. Routers are intelligent. They can use algorithms to determine most efficient path for sending a packet to any given network. Router are also working to connect LAN to wide area network (WAN). Routers are of two types. 1. Static routers: Static routers do not determine paths, but you need to specify them. 2. Dynamic routers: Dynamic routers have capacity to determine routes.

Gateway

The term Gateway is used in networking to describe the Gate to the Internet The Gateway controls traffic that travels from the inside network to the Internet and provides security from traffic that wants to enter the inside network from the Internet. Gateway connects two independent networks. A gateway is protocol converter. A gateway can accept a packet formatted for one protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) and convert it to a packet formatted for another protocol (e.g. Apple Talk) before forwarding it. The gateway must adjust the data rate, size and data format. Gateway is generally software installed within a router.

Modem

Modem means modulator-demodulator. At the sending end, a modem modulates a carrier with the data to prepare it for transmission. At the receiving end, the modulated carrier is demodulated and the data is extracted. A modem also performs other functions, such as digital-to-analog/analog-todigital conversion, compression/decompression, error correction, and encryption/decryption. Phone lines are designed for analog, voice signals. Data communication using phone line requires a special communication device, which convert the data signals to those more compatible with the phone line capabilities. Special communication device modem is used with telephone line for data transfer

Features Modem

Speed Self Testing Auto Answer Auto Dial/Redial Voice over Data

Types Modem

Half Duplex and Full Duplex Four Wire