Project on

Cell
Submitted to: Ravi Rajesh Prepared by: Geet Pandya IX A 23
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Cells are the Starting Point

All living organisms on Earth are divided in pieces called cells. There are smaller pieces to cells that include proteins and organelles. There are also larger pieces called tissues and systems. Cells are small compartments that hold all of the biological equipment necessary to keep an organism alive and successful on Earth.

One Name, Many Types

There are many types of cells. In biology class, you will usually work with plant-like cells and animal-like cells. We say animal-like because an animal type of cell could be anything from a tiny microorganism to a nerve cell in your brain. Plant cells are easier to identify because they have a

protective structure called a cell wall made of cellulose.

Plants have the wall; animals do not. Plants also have organelles like the chloroplast (the things that make them green) or large water-filled vacuoles.
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We said that there are many types of cells. Cells are unique to each type of organism. Humans may have hundreds of types of cells. Some cells are used to carry oxygen (O2) through the blood (red blood cells) and others might be specific to the heart. If you look at very simple organisms, you will discover cells that have no defined nucleus (prokaryotes) and other cells that have hundreds of nuclei (multinucleated). The thing they all have in common is that they are compartments surrounded by some type of membrane.
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Cell Membranes
We have been talking about cells being a unit of organization in biology. Let's look at the cell membrane and see how that membrane keeps all of the pieces inside. When you think about a membrane, imagine it is like a Big plastic bag with some tiny holes. That bag holds all of the cell pieces and fluids inside the cell and keeps any nasty things outside the cell. The holes are there to let some things move in and out of the cell.
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Flexible Containers
The cell membrane is not one solid piece. Everything in life
is made of smaller pieces and a membrane is no different. Compounds called proteins and phospholipids make up

most of the cell membrane. The phospholipids make the

basic bag. The proteins are found around the holes and help move molecules in and out of the cell.

Scientists describe the organization of the phospholipids and proteins with the fluid mosaic model. That model shows that the phospholipids are in a shape like a head and a tail. The heads like water (hydrophilic) and the tails do not like water (hydrophobic). The tails bump up against each other and the heads are out facing the watery area surrounding the cell. The two layers of cells are called the bilayer.
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 Ingrained in the Membrane

What about the membrane proteins? Scientists have shown that the proteins float in that bilayer. Some of them are found on the inside of the cell and some on the outside. Other proteins cross the bilayer with one end outside of the cell and one end inside. Those proteins that cross the layer are very important in the active transport of ions and small molecules.

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 Many Membranes
As you learn more about the organelles inside of the cell, you will find that most have a membrane. They do not have the same chemical makeup as the cell membrane. Each membrane is unique to the organelle. The membrane that surrounds a lysosome is different from the membrane around the endoplasmic reticulum. They are both different from the cell membrane. Some organelles have two membranes. A mitochondrion has an outer and inner membrane. The outer membrane contains the mitochondrion parts. The inner molecule holds digestive enzymes that break down food. While we talk about membranes all the time, you should remember they all use a basic phospholipid bilayer, but have many other different parts.
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 Membrane Proteins - Bumpy Services

We spoke a little about the cell membrane and its structure. We also discussed the lipid bilayer. That lipid bilayer is not smooth around the entire cell. You will find thousands (millions?) of proteins throughout the cell membrane. Some are just on the inside of the cell and some on the outside. A special few cross the cell membrane. Each type of protein has a specific purpose. There are also embedded proteins in the other membranes for cell organelles.
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 A Tale of Two Types

There are two types of proteins in the cell membrane -peripheral proteins and integral proteins. As you can guess from the name, integral membrane proteins are permanently connected to the cell membrane. They have large sections embedded in the hydrophobic (middle) layer of the membrane. Peripheral proteins are not bonded as strongly to the membrane. They may just sit on the surface of the membrane, anchored with a few hydrogen (H) bonds. Integral proteins are the hard workers of the cell membrane. Some integral proteins cross the membrane and act as pathways for ions and molecules. Some of the ion movement may not require work (passive transport), but other processes require a lot of energy and pumping action (active transport). When you look at the whole membrane, there are very few integral proteins when compared to the number of peripheral ones.
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 Discovering Structures
This structure of the membrane with embedded proteins and a lipid bilayer was discovered in the early 1970's. Two scientists, Singer and Nicolson, first developed the theory of the "Fluid Mosaic Model." They used several different methods, such as the freeze-fracture technique and electron micrographs, to look closely at the cell membrane and its structure. They identified the proteins that sat on the surface, were sunk into the membrane, and the others that crossed the membrane.
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 Cell Wall - What's it for?

While cell membranes might be around every cell, cell walls made of cellulose are only found around plant cells. Cell walls are made of specialized sugars called cellulose. Cellulose provides a protected framework for a plant cell to survive. It's like taking a water balloon and putting it in a cardboard box. The balloon is protected from the outside world. Cellulose is called a structural carbohydrate (complex sugar) because it is used in protection and support.
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Cell walls also help a plant keep its shape. While they do protect the cells, cell walls and cellulose also allow plants to grow to great heights. While you have a skeleton to hold you up, a 100-foot tall redwood tree does not. It uses the strong cell walls to maintain its shape. For smaller plants, cell walls are slightly elastic. Wind can push them over and then they bounce back. Big redwoods need strength in high winds and sway very little (except at the top).

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 Another Hole in the Wall

A cell wall is not a fortress around the delicate plant cell. There are small holes in the wall that let nutrients, waste, and ions pass through. Those holes are called plasmodesmata. These holes have a problem: water can also be lost. But even when the plant cell loses water, the basic shape is maintained by the cell walls. So if a plant is drooping because it needs water, it can recover when water is added. It will look just the same as when it started.
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 More Than Walls in Plants

You may hear about cell walls in other areas of biology. Bacteria also have a structure called a cell wall. Fungi and some ptotozoa also have cell walls. They are not the same. Only plant cell walls are made out of cellulose. The other walls might be made from proteins or a substance called chitin. They all serve the same purpose of protecting and maintaining structure, but they are very different molecules.

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 Connection and Communication All living things communicate in one way or another. When you start looking at the world on a cellular level, you won't find communication in writing or words. Cellular communication is on a molecular level. This section talks about cells in a larger organism that are near each other. We don't cover the communication between singlecelled organisms. They behave in different ways. Gap Junctions Gap junctions are one type of cell connection. When two cells are right next to each other, their cell membranes may actually be touching. A gap junction is an opening from one cell to another. It's not a big opening, but it is large enough for cytoplasm to move from one cell to another. The connections are called channels and they act like tunnels for the movement of molecules.
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 Desmosomes
Desmosomes are a second type of cell connection. They physically connect cells like the gap junction, but no opening is created. Proteins that bond the membrane of one cell to its neighbor create the desmosomes. You will find desmosomes in your skin cells. All of those proteins hold your skin together. The distance between the cells, however small, is about 10 times wider than the gap junction connections.

Tight Junction
The last type of connection we will introduce is the tight junction. Tight junctions happen when two membranes actually bond into one. It makes a very strong barrier between two cells. Cells have some distance with a desmosome. Gap junctions allow molecules to pass. Tight junctions form solid walls. These types of connections are often found where one area needs to be protected from the contents of other areas.
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 Cytoplasm - Filling Fluid

Cytoplasm is the fluid that fills a cell. Scientists used to call the fluid protoplasm. Early on, they didn't know about the many different types of fluids in the cell. There is special fluid in the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and nucleus. The only two 'plasms' left are cytoplasm (the fluid in the cell also called cytosol) and nucleoplasm (the fluid in the nucleus). Each of those fluids has a very different composition. The cell organelles are suspended in the cytosol. You will learn that the microfilaments and microtubules set up a "skeleton" of the cell and the cytosol fills the spaces. The cytoplasm has many different molecules dissolved in solution. You'll find enzymes, fatty acids, sugars, and amino acids that are used to keep the cell working. Waste products are also dissolved before they are taken in by vacuoles or sent out of the cell.
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 Special Fluids in the Nucleus Nucleoplasm has a little different composition. Nucleoplasm can only be found inside of the nucleus. It doesn't have big organelles in suspension. The nucleoplasm is the suspension fluid that holds the cell's chromatin and nucleolus. It is not always present in the nucleus. When the cell divides, the nuclear membrane dissolves and the nucleoplasm is released. After the cell nucleus has reformed, the nucleoplasm fills the space again. More than Filling The cytosol in a cell does more than just suspend the organelles. It uses its dissolved enzymes to break down all of those larger molecules. The products can then be used by the organelles of the cell. Glucose may exist in the cytosol but the mitochondria can't use it for fuel. The cytosol has enzymes that break glucose down into pyruvate molecules that are then sent to the mitochondria.
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 Cell Nucleus - Commanding the Cell The cell nucleus acts like the brain of the cell. It helps control eating, movement, and reproduction. If it happens in a cell, chances are the nucleus knows about it. The nucleus is not always in the center of the cell. It will be a big dark spot somewhere in the middle of all of the cytoplasm (cytosol). You probably won't find it near the edge of a cell because that might be a dangerous place for the nucleus to be. If you don't remember, the cytoplasm is the fluid that fills cells.

Life Before a Nucleus

Not all cells have a nucleus. Biology breaks cell types into eukaryotic (those with a defined nucleus) and prokaryotic (those with no defined nucleus). You may have heard of chromatin and DNA. You don't need a nucleus to have DNA. If you don't have a defined nucleus, your DNA is probably floating around the cell in a region called the nucleoid. A defined nucleus that holds the genetic code is an advanced feature in a cell. 23

Important Materials in the Envelope

The things that make a eukaryotic cell are a defined nucleus and other organelles. The nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus and all of its contents. The nuclear envelope is a membrane similar to the cell membrane around the whole cell. There are pores and spaces for RNA and proteins to pass through while the nuclear envelope keeps all of the chromatin and nucleolus inside.
When the cell is in a resting state there is something called chromatin in the nucleus. Chromatin is made of DNA, RNA, and nuclear proteins. DNA and RNA are the nucleic acids inside of the cell. When the cell is going to divide, the chromatin becomes very compact. It condenses. When the chromatin comes together, you can see the chromosomes. You will also find the nucleolus inside of the nucleus. When you look through a microscope, it looks like a nucleus inside of the nucleus. It is made of RNA and protein. It does not have much DNA at all.

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 Chromosomes - Pull up Those Genes Chromosomes are the things that make organisms what they are. They carry all of the information used to help a cell grow, thrive, and reproduce. Chromosomes are made up of DNA. Segments of DNA in specific patterns are called genes. Your genes make you who you are. You will find the chromosomes and genetic material in the nucleus of a cell. In prokaryotes, DNA floats in the cytoplasm in an area called the nucleoid.

Loose and Tight

Chromosomes are not always visible. They usually sit around uncoiled and as loose strands called chromatin. When it is time for the cell to reproduce, they condense and wrap up very tightly. The tightly wound DNA is the chromosome. Chromosomes look kind of like long, limp, white hot dogs. They are usually found in pairs.
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 Completing the Sets

Scientists count individual strands of chromosomes. They count individuals not every organism has pairs. You probably have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Peas only have 12. A dog has 78. The number of chromosomes is NOT related to the intelligence or complexity of the creature. There is a crayfish with 200 chromosomes. Does that make a crayfish five times smarter or more complex than you are? No. There are even organisms of the same species with different numbers of chromosomes. You will often find plants of the same species with multiple sets of chromosomes.

Chromosomes work with other nucleic acids in the cell to build proteins and help in cell division. You will most likely find mRNA in the nucleus with the DNA. tRNA is found outside of the nucleus in the cytosol. When the chromosomes are visible, cells with two complete sets of chromosomes are called diploids (46 in a human). Most cells are diploid. Cells with only one set (23 in a human) are called haploid cells. Haploids are most often found in cells involved in sexual reproduction such as a sperm or an egg. Haploid cells are created in cell division termed meiosis.

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 Centrioles - Organizing Chromosomes

Every animal-like cell has two small organelles called centrioles. They are there to help the cell when it comes time to divide. They are put to work in both the process of mitosis and the process of meiosis. You will usually find them near the nucleus but they cannot be seen when the cell is not dividing. And what are centrioles made of? Microtubules. Centriole Structure A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a specific way. There are nine groups of microtubules. When two centrioles are found next to each other, they are usually at right angles. The centrioles are found in pairs and move towards the poles (opposite ends) of the nucleus when it is time for cell division. During division, you may also see groups of threads attached to the centrioles. Those threads are called the mitotic spindle.
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 Relaxing When There's no Work

We already mentioned that you would find centrioles near the nucleus. You will not see well-defined centrioles when the cell is not dividing. You will see a condensed and darker area of the cytoplasm called the centrosome. When the time comes for cell division, the centrioles will appear and move to opposite ends of the nucleus. During division you will see four centrioles. One pair moves in each direction. Interphase is the time when the cell is at rest. When it comes time for a cell to divide, the centrioles duplicate. During prophase, the centrioles move to opposite ends of the nucleus and a mitotic spindle of threads begins to appear. Those threads then connect to the now apparent chromosomes. During anaphase, the chromosomes are split and pulled towards each centriole. Once the entire cell begins to split in telophase, the chromosomes begin to unravel and new nuclear envelopes begin to appear. The centrioles have done their job.
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 Ribosomes - Protein Construction Teams

Cells need to make proteins. Those proteins might be used as enzymes or as support for other cell functions. When you need to make proteins, you look for ribosomes. Ribosomes are the protein builders or the protein synthesizers of the cell. They are like construction guys who connect one amino acid at a time and build long chains.

Ribosomes are found in many places around the cell. You might find them floating in the cytoplasm (cytosol). Those floating ribosomes make proteins that will be used inside of the cell. Other ribosomes are found on the endoplasmic reticulum. Endoplasmic reticulum with attached ribosomes is called rough. It looks bumpy under a microscope. Those attached ribosomes make proteins that will be used inside the cell and proteins made for export out of the cell.
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 Two Pieces Make the Whole

A ribosome is not just one piece. There are two pieces or subunits. Scientists named them 60-S (large) and 40-S (small). When the cell needs to make protein, mRNA is created in the nucleus. The mRNA is then sent into the cell and the ribosomes. When it is time to make the protein, the two subunits come together and combine with the mRNA. The subunits lock onto the mRNA and start the protein synthesis. The 60-S/ 40-S model works fine for eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells have ribosomes made of 50-S and 30-S subunits. It's a small difference, but one of many you will find in the two different types of cells. Scientists have used this difference in ribosome size to develop drugs that can kill prokaryotic microorganisms that cause disease.
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Mixing and Matching Amino Acids

The process of making proteins is quite simple. We just explained that mRNA is made in the nucleus and sent into the cell. The mRNA then combines with the ribosome subunits. Another nucleic acid lives in the cell - tRNA, which stands for transfer RNA. tRNA is bonded to the amino acids floating around the cell. With the mRNA offering instructions, the ribosome connects to a tRNA and pulls off one amino acid. Slowly the ribosome makes a long amino acid chain that will be part of a larger protein.
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Mitochondria - Turning on the Powerhouse

Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. They are organelles that act like a digestive system that takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and creates energy for the cell. The process of creating cell energy is known as cellular respiration. Most of the chemical reactions involved in cellular respiration happen in the mitochondria. A mitochondrion is shaped perfectly to maximize its efforts. Mitochondria are very small organelles. You might find cells with several thousand mitochondria. The number depends on what the cell needs to do. If the purpose of the cell is to transmit nerve impulses, there will be fewer mitochondria than in a muscle cell that needs loads of energy. If the cell feels it is not getting enough energy to survive, more mitochondria can be created. Sometimes they can even grow, move, and combine with other mitochondria, depending on the cell's needs.
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Mitochondria Structure

Mitochondria have two membranes (not one as in other organelles). The outer membrane covers the organelle and contains it. The inner membrane folds over many times (cristae). That folding increases the surface area inside the organelle. Many of the chemical reactions happen on the inner membrane of the mitochondria. The increased surface area allows the small organelle to do as much work as possible. If you have more room to work, you can get more work done. Similar surface area strategies are used by microvilli in your intestinal cells. The fluid inside of the mitochondria is called the matrix.
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Using Oxygen to Release Energy

How are mitochondria used in cellular respiration? The matrix is filled with water (H2O) and proteins (enzymes). Those proteins take food molecules and combine them with oxygen (O2). The mitochondria are the only place in the cell where oxygen can be combined with the food molecules. After the oxygen is added, the material can be digested. They are working organelles that keep the cell full of energy. A mitochondrion may also be involved in controlling the concentration of calcium (Ca) within the cell.

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 Chloroplasts - Show me the Green

Chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell. They are only found in plant cells and some protists. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts. Every green plant you see is working to convert the energy of the sun into sugars. Plants are the basis of all life on Earth. They create sugars, and the byproduct of that process is the oxygen that we breathe. That process happens in the chloroplast. Mitochondria work in the opposite direction and break down the sugars and nutrients that the cell receives.
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 Special Structures
We'll hit the high points for the structure of a chloroplast. Two membranes contain and protect the inner parts of the chloroplast. The stroma is an area inside of the chloroplast where reactions occur and starches (sugars) are created. One thylakoid stack is called a granum. The thylakoids have chlorophyll molecules on their surface. That chlorophyll uses sunlight to create sugars. The stacks of sacs are connected by stromal lamellae. The lamellae act like the skeleton of the chloroplast, keeping all of the sacs a safe distance from each other and maximizing the efficiency of the organelle.
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 Making Food
The purpose of the chloroplast is to make sugars and starches. They use a process called photosynthesis to get the job done. Photosynthesis is the process of a plant taking energy from the Sun and creating sugars. When the energy from the Sun hits a chloroplast, chlorophyll uses that energy to combine carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). The molecular reactions create sugar and oxygen (O2). Plants and animals then use the sugars (glucose) for food and energy. Animals also use the oxygen to breathe.

Different Chlorophyll Molecules

We said that chlorophyll molecules sit on the outside of the thylakoid sacs. Not all chlorophyll is the same. Three types of chlorophyll can complete photosynthesis. There are even molecules other than chlorophyll that are photosynthetic. One day you might hear about carotenoids, phycocyanin (bacteria), phycoerythrin (algae), and fucoxanthin (brown algae). While those compounds might complete photosynthesis, they are not all green or the same structure as chlorophyll.

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 Endoplasmic Reticulum - Wrapping it Up

Another organelle in the cell is the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). While the function of the nucleus is to act as the cell brain, the ER functions as a packaging system. It does not work alone. The ER works closely with the Golgi apparatus, ribososmes, RNA, mRNA, and tRNA. It creates a network of membranes found through the whole cell. The ER may also look different from cell to cell, depending on the cell's function.

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 Rough and Smooth

As you learn more about cells you will discover two types of ER. There are rough ER and smooth ER. They both have the same types of membranes but they have different shapes and rough ER has ribosomes attached. Rough ER looks like sheets of bumpy membranes while smooth ER looks more like tubes. Sometimes the ER looks like a flat balloon. Sacs of the ER called cisternae store the complex molecules.
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Smooth ER has its purpose in the cell. It acts as a storage organelle. It is important in the creation and storage of steroids. It also stores ions in solution that the cell may need at a later time. Steroids are a type of ringed organic molecule used for many purposes in an organism. They are not always about building

muscle mass like a weight lifter. The ion

storage is important because sometimes a cell needs ions fast. It might not want to search the environment for ions, so it is easier to have them stored in a pack for easy use.

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Rough ER was mentioned in the section on ribosomes. They are very important in the synthesis and packaging of proteins. Some of those proteins might be used in the cell and some are sent out. The ribosomes are attached to the membrane of the ER. As the ribosome builds the amino acid chain, the chain is pushed into the ER. When the protein is complete, the rough ER pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small membrane bubble, can move to the cell membrane or the Golgi apparatus.

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 Golgi Apparatus - Packing Things Up The Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex is found in most cells. It is another packaging organelle like the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It was named after Camillo Golgi, an Italian biologist. It is pronounced GOL-JI in the same way you would say squee-gie, as soft a "G" sound. While layers of membranes may look like the rough ER,

they have a very different function.

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 Foundation of Vesicles The Golgi complex gathers simple molecules and combines them to make molecules that are more complex. It then takes those big molecules, packages them in vesicles, and either stores them for later use or sends them out of the cell. It is also the organelle that builds lysosomes (cell digestion machines). Golgi complexes in the plant may also create complex sugars and send them off in secretory vesicles. The vesicles are created in the same way the ER does it. The vesicles are pinched off the membranes and float through the cell. The Golgi complex is a series of membranes shaped like pancakes. The single membrane is similar to the cell membrane in that it has two layers. The membrane surrounds an area of fluid where the complex molecules (proteins, sugars, enzymes) are stored and changed. Because the Golgi complex absorbs vesicles from the rough ER, you will also find ribosomes in those pancake stacks.
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Working with the Rough ER

The Golgi complex works closely with the rough ER. When a protein is made in the ER, something called a transition vesicle is made. This vesicle or sac floats through the cytoplasm to the Golgi apparatus and is absorbed. After the Golgi does its work on the molecules inside the sac, a secretory vesicle is created and released into the cytoplasm. From there, the vesicle moves to the cell membrane and the molecules are released out of the cell.
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 Vacuoles - Storage Bins to the Cells Vacuoles are storage bubbles found in cells. They are found in both animal and plant cells but are much larger in plant cells. Vacuoles might store food or any variety of nutrients a cell might need to survive. They can even store waste products so the rest of the cell is protected from contamination. Eventually, those waste products would be sent out of the cell.
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The structure of vacuoles is fairly simple. There is a membrane that surrounds a mass of fluid. In that fluid are nutrients or waste products. Plants may also use vacuoles to store water. Those tiny water bags help to support the plant. They are closely related to objects called vesicles that are found throughout the cell.
In plant cells, the vacuoles are much larger than in animal cells. When a plant cell has stopped growing, there is usually one very large vacuole. Sometimes that vacuole can take up more than half of the cell's volume. The vacuole holds large amounts of water or food. Don't forge that vacuoles can also hold the plant waste products. Those waste products are slowly broken into small pieces that cannot hurt the cell. Vacuoles hold onto things that the cell might need, just like a backpack.

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 Helping with Support

Vacuoles also play an important role in plant structure. Plants use cell walls to provide support and surround cells. The size of that cell may still increase or decrease depending on how much water is present. Plant cells do not shrink because of changes in the amount of cytoplasm. Most of a plant cell's volume depends on the material in vacuoles.

Those vacuoles gain and lose water depending on how much water is available to the plant. A drooping plant has lost much of its water and the vacuoles are shrinking. It still maintains its basic structure because of the cell walls. When the plant finds a new source of water, the vacuoles are refilled and the plant regains its structure.
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 Microfilaments - Stringy Proteins You will find microfilaments in most cells. They are the partner of microtubules. They are long, thin, and stringy proteins (mainly actin) compared to the rounder, tube-

shaped microtubules. We'd like to say you can find them here or there, but they are everywhere in a cell. They work with microtubules to form the structure that allows a cell to hold its shape, move itself, and move its organelles.

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 Making the Cytoskeleton All of the microfilaments and microtubules combine to form the cytoskeleton of the cell. The cytoskeleton is different from cytoplasm (cytosol). The cytoskeleton provides structure. Cytoplasm is just a fluid. The cytoskeleton connects to every organelle and every part of the cell membrane. Think about an amoeba. All of the pieces work together so that the foot might reach out towards the food. Then lysosomes and peroxisomes are sent to begin digestion. The movement of the cell membrane, organelles, and cytoplasm is all related to the tubules and filaments.
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You will also find many microfilaments in muscle tissue. They are called myofibrils when you find them in muscles. The two proteins myosin and actin work together to help the muscle cells relax and contract. The two proteins need each other and together they are called actomyosin. Combine those protein threads with some ions in the muscle cell and you get a huge contraction. The groups of actomyosin contracting are called sarcomeres. All of the muscle cells work together to make a muscle contract.
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 A Role in Cell Movement

Cells move in a variety of ways. We just talked about the contraction of a muscle cell. That is an extreme example. When you learn about single-celled organisms, you will understand that they need to move. They may need to glide from one area to another. The microfilaments are often found anchored to proteins in the cell membrane. Sometimes microfilaments are found floating free and connected to other filaments and tubules. Those binding proteins allow the microfilaments to push and pull on the cell membrane to help the cell move.
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 Microtubules - Thick Protein Tubes

Microtubules are usually discussed with microfilaments. Although they are both proteins that help define cell structure and movement, they are very different molecules. While microfilaments are thin, microtubules are thick, strong spirals of thousands of subunits. Those subunits are made of the protein called tubulin. And yes, they got their name because they look like a tube.

Elements of the Cytoskeleton

All of the microfilaments and microtubules combine to form the cytoskeleton of the cell. The cytoskeleton is different from cytoplasm (cytosol). The cytoskeleton provides structure. Cytoplasm is just a fluid. The cytoskeleton connects to every organelle and every part of the cell membrane. Think about an amoeba. All of the pieces work together so that the foot might reach out towards the food. Then lysosomes and peroxisomes are sent to begin digestion. The movement of the cell membrane, organelles, and cytoplasm is all related to the tubules and filaments.
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 Moving Chromosomes
Microtubules have many more uses than just cell structure. They are also very important in cell division. They connect to chromosomes, help them with their first split, and then move to each new daughter cell. They are a part of a small pair of organelles called centrioles that have the specific purpose to help a cell divide. Once the cell has finished dividing, the microtubules are put to work in other places.

Moving Organisms
Beyond the role they play in internal cell movement, microtubules also work together to form larger structures that work on the outside of the cells. They can combine in very specific arrangements to form cilia and flagella. Cilia are little hairs you might see on the outside of a paramecium or other protists. They flap back and forth to help the cell move. Flagella are long, thick tails. They whip around and sometimes twirl, pushing the cell along. 53

 Lysosomes - Little Enzyme Packages You will find organelles called lysosomes in nearly every animal-like eukaryotic cell. Lysosomes hold enzymes that were created by the cell. The purpose of the lysosome is to digest things. They might be used to dig est food or break down the cell when it dies. What creates a lysosome? You'll have to visit the Golgi complex for that answer. A lysosome is basically a specialized vesicle that holds a variety of enzymes. The enzyme proteins are first created in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Those proteins are packaged in a vesicle and sent to the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi then does its final work to create the digestive enzymes and pinches off a small, very specific vesicle. That vesicle is a lysosome. From there the lysosomes float in the cytoplasm until they are needed. Lysosomes are single-membrane 54 organelles.

 Lysosome Action
Since lysosomes are little digestion machines, they go to work when the cell absorbs or eats some food. Once the material is inside the cell, the lysosomes attach and release their enzymes. The enzymes break down complex molecules that can include complex sugars and proteins. But what if food is scarce and the cell is starving? The lysosomes go to work even if there is no food for the cell. When the signal is sent out, lysosomes will actually digest the cell organelles for nutrients.

Why Don't They Digest the Cell?

Here's something scientists are still trying to figure out. If the lysosome holds many types of enzymes, how can the lysosome survive? Lysosomes are designed to break down complex molecules and pieces of the cell. Why don't the enzymes break down the membrane that surrounds the lysosome?
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 Peroxisomes - Another Enzyme Package

There are many ways that peroxisomes are similar to lysosomes. They are small vesicles found around the cell. They have a single membrane that contains digestive enzymes for breaking down toxic materials in the cell. They differ from lysosomes in the type of enzyme they hold. Peroxisomes hold on to enzymes that require oxygen (oxidative enzymes). Lysosomes have enzymes that work in oxygen-poor areas and lower pH. Peroxisomes absorb nutrients that the cell has acquired. They are very well known for digesting fatty acids. They also play a part in the way organisms digest alcohol (ethanol). Because they do that job, you would expect liver cells to have more peroxisomes than most other cells in a human body. They also play a role in cholesterol synthesis and the digestion of amino acids.
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 Creating Hydrogen Peroxide

Peroxisomes work in a very specific way. Their enzymes attack complex molecules and break them down into smaller molecules. One of the byproducts of the digestion is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Peroxisomes have developed to a point where they are able to contain that hydrogen peroxide and break it down into water (H2O) and oxygen (O2). The water is harmless to the cell and the oxygen can be used in the next digestive reaction.

Mysteries of the Peroxisome

Peroxisomes have a single membrane that surrounds the digestive enzymes and dangerous byproducts of their work (hydrogen peroxide). The protein enzymes are usually created by lysosomes floating in the cell. They then insert the proteins into the peroxisome bubble. Peroxisomes continue to grow until they split in two. Where does the membrane come from? Scientists are still researching that answer. It may come from the endoplasmic reticulum, but it may be created in a way different from lysosomes.
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Looking at Cell Functions

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All cells have a purpose. If they don't do anything productive, they are not needed anymore. In the big picture, a cell's purpose is much more important than acting as small organizational pieces. They had their purpose long before they started working together in groups and building more advanced organisms. When alone, a cell's main purpose is to survive. Even if you were a single cell, you would have a purpose. You would have to survive. You would be moving around (probably in a liquid) and just trying to stay alive. You would have all of your pieces inside of you. If you were missing a piece you needed to survive, you would die. Scientists call those pieces organelles. Organelles are groups of complex
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 All Cells are not Created Equal

In the same way that cells survive in different ways; all cells have different types and amounts of organelles. The larger a cell becomes the more organelles it will need. It makes sense if you think about it. If you are a big cell, you will need to eat more than a little cell. You will also need to convert that food into energy. A larger cell would need to eat more and may wind up having more mitochondria to process that food into energy. While they might have a purpose, more advanced cells have a difficult time surviving on their own. A cell from your brain could not survive in a Petri dish for long. It doesn't have the right pieces to live on its own. It does have the ability to transmit electrical systems around your body. An amoeba could survive in a dish forever, thrive, and reproduce. On the other hand, that amoeba will never help you transmit electrical impulses. The brain cell is far more advanced and has specific abilities and organelles. Simpler cells have a better chance of surviving on their own while complex cells can accomplish tasks that are more advanced. 60

PASSIVE TRANSPORT - TAKING THE EASY ROAD

While active transport requires energy and work, passive transport does not. There are several different types of this easy movement of molecules. It could be as simple as molecules moving freely such as osmosis or diffusion. You may also see proteins in the cell membrane that act as channels to help the movement along. And of course there is an in-between transport process where very small molecules are able to cross a semi-permeable membrane.

Sometimes, proteins are used to help move molecules more quickly. It is a process called facilitated diffusion. It could be as simple as bringing in a glucose molecule. Since the cell membrane will not allow glucose to cross by diffusion, helpers are needed. The cell might notice outside fluids rushing by with free glucose molecules. The membrane proteins then grab one molecule and shift their position to bring the molecule into the cell. That's an easy situation of passive transport because the glucose is moving from higher to lower concentration. It's moving down a concentration gradient. If you needed to remove glucose, the cell would require energy.

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 Letting Concentration Do The Work

Sometimes cells are in an area where there is a large concentration difference. For example, oxygen molecule concentrations could be very high outside of the cell and very low inside. Those oxygen molecules are so small that they are able to cross the lipid bilayer and enter the cell. There is no energy needed for this process. In this case, it's good for the cell because cells need oxygen to survive. It can also happen with other molecules that can kill a cell.
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 OSMOSIS
Another big example of passive transport is osmosis. This is a water specific process. Usually, cells are in an environment where there is one concentration of ions outside and one inside. Because concentrations like to be the same, the cell can pump ions in an out to stay alive. Osmosis is the movement of water across the membrane. For a cell to survive, ion concentrations need to be the same on both sides of the cell membrane. If the cell does not pump out all of its extra ions to even out the concentrations, the water is going to move in. This can be very bad. The cell can swell up and explode. The classic example of this type of swelling happens when red blood cells are placed in water. The water rushes in to the cells, they expand and eventually rupture (POP!).
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 Active Transport - Energy To Transport

Active transport describes what happens when a cell uses energy to transport something. We're not talking about phagocytosis (cell eating) or pinocytosis (cell drinking) in this section. We're talking about the movement of individual molecules across the cell membrane. The liquids inside and outside of cells have different substances. Sometimes a cell has to work and use some energy to maintain a proper balance of ions and molecules.
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 PROTEINS IN THE MEMBRANE

Active transport usually happens across the cell membrane. There are thousands of proteins embedded in the cell's lipid bilayer. Those proteins do much of the work in active transport. They are positioned to cross the membrane so one part is on the inside of the cell and one part is on the outside. Only when they cross the bilayer are they able to move molecules and ions in and out of the cell. The membrane proteins are very specific. One protein that moves glucose will not move calcium (Ca) ions. There are hundreds of types of these membrane proteins in the many cells of your body.
Many times, proteins have to work against a concentration gradient. That term means they are pumping something (usually ions) from areas of lower to higher concentration. This happens a lot in neurons. The membrane proteins are constantly pumping ions in and out to get the membrane of the neuron ready to transmit electrical impulses
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 STOPPING THE TRANSPORT

Even though these proteins are working to keep the cell alive, their activity can be stopped. There are poisons that stop the membrane proteins from transporting their molecules. Those poisons are called inhibitors. Sometimes the proteins are destroyed and other times they are just plugged up. Imagine that you are a cell and have ten proteins working to pump calcium into the cell. What if a poison came along and blocked eight of them? You could not survive with just two pumps working and would slowly die. It would be like expecting you to breathe with your mouth and nose plugged up.
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 PHAGOCYTOSIS - TIME TO EAT!

Simply put, cells need to eat and drink just like you. Phagocytosis is the process of a cell eating. It is one type of endocytosis. Endocytosis happens when a cell goes out and takes in something. Phagocytosis is the situation when it gets a solid. Pinocytosis is the act of grabbing some liquid. The whole cell works during the process. It is not just some membrane proteins taking in a couple of molecules as in active transport. Phagocytosis is a cell taking in a large object that it will eventually digest. The classic example is an amoeba eating a bacterium. First, the cell senses the bacterium because of chemicals in the environment. The cell then moves towards the prey. Once contact is made, the amoeba slowly wraps its cell membrane around the object. When the membranes reach out for the prey, they are called pseudopodium. When the cell membrane surrounds the object, the object has actually been sealed in a new vesicle. The final step is digestion of the prey. If a cell does not act quickly, the bacterium could begin to reproduce. Lysosomes quickly attach to the vesicle of food and release digestive enzymes. The enzyme action is called an oxidative burst. The food is then broken down and the amoeba absorbs the nutrients. Waste particles remain in the vesicle and can then be sent out of the cell.
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 HUNTING FOR DINNER

The ability to hunt down and eat food was a huge accomplishment for cells. Once the process was refined, unicellular organisms became able to eat other objects that were almost as big as they were. They were also able to become independent of processes like diffusion and active transport. Overall, cells could grow faster and larger. That faster growth meant it would take less time for the cell to reproduce.

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 PINOCYTOSIS - ONE MORE TIME

Simply put, cells need to eat and drink just like you. Phagocytosis is the process of a cell eating. It is one type of endocytosis. Endocytosis happens when a cell goes out and takes in something. Phagocytosis is the situation when it gets a solid. Pinocytosis is the act of grabbing some

liquid. The whole cell works during the process. It is not

just some membrane proteins taking in a couple of molecules as in active transport.

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 YOU GOTTA HYDRATE

Almost all cells do some form of pinocytosis. The process does not require the cell to go out and hunt down prey as in phagocytosis. It's about taking in drops of fluid that are outside of the cell. All cells need to do that. There are even different styles of pinocytosis. Cells have certain styles depending on what structures they have. Basic pinocytosis involves a cell taking in very small drops of extracellular fluids. Many organelles pinch off vesicles into the cytosol. Pinocytosis sees the cell membrane wrap around a drop and pinch it off into the cell. The molecules inside of the newly created vesicles can then be digested or absorbed into the cytosol. Pinocytosis is a process that is happening all of the time. An amoeba may form the vesicles easily as it moves along. A cell with many microvilli (like in your intestine) is constantly pinching off little vesicles filled with fluid. Those types of cells never move so they need to be more efficient. 70

 MITOSIS - WHEN CELLS SPLIT APART

Eventually cells need to duplicate. There are two main methods of replication, mitosis and meiosis. This tutorial will talk about mitosis. The big idea to remember is that mitosis is the simple duplication of a cell and all of its parts. It duplicates its DNA and the two new cells (daughter cells) have the same pieces and genetic code. Two identical copies come from one original. Start with one; get two that are the same. You get the idea. Beyond the idea that two identical cells are created, there are certain steps in the process. There are five (5) basic phases in the life-cycle of a cell. You should remember the term PMATI (pronounced PeeMahtEee). PMATI is the acronym for the phases of a cell's existence. It breaks down to.
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 PROPHASE - METAPHASE - ANAPHASE - TELOPHASE INTERPHASE We suppose it would be good to know what happens during those phases. Always remember - PMATI! THE PHASES Prophase: A cell gets the idea that it is time to divide. First, it has to get everything ready. You need to duplicate DNA, get certain pieces in the right position (centrioles), and generally prepare the cell for the process of mitotic division. Metaphase: Now all of the pieces are aligning themselves for the big split. The DNA lines up along a central axis and the centrioles send out specialized tubules that connect to the DNA. The DNA (chromatin) has now condensed into chromosomes. Two strands of a chromosome are connected at the center with something called a centromere. The tubules actually connect to the centromere, not the DNA.
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Anaphase: Here we go! The separation begins. Half of the chromosomes are pulled to one side of the cell; half go the other way. When the chromosomes get to the side of the cell, it's time to move on to telophase.
Telophase: Now the division is finishing up. This is the time when the cell membrane closes in and splits the cell into two pieces. You have two separate cells each with half of the original DNA. Interphase: This is the normal state of a cell. We suppose that when it comes to cell division, you could call this the resting state. It's just going about its daily business of surviving and making sure it has all of the nutrients and energy it needs. It is also getting ready for another division that will happen one day. It is duplicating its nucleic acids, so when it's time for prophase again, all the pieces are there.
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 MEIOSIS - IT'S FOR SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

What are the big ideas here? There are two cell divisions. Mitosis has one division and meiosis has two divisions. You still have to remember PMATI, but now you do it twice. You also need to remember that four cells are created where there was originally one. That's four (4) cells with half of the amount of DNA needed by a cell. When a cell goes through meiosis, it's not concerned about creating another working cell. Meiosis happens when it's time to reproduce an organism. The steps of meiosis are very simple. When you break it down it's just two PMATI's in a row. Scientists say Meiosis I and Meiosis II, but it's just two PMATIs. The interphase that happens between the two processes is very short and the DNA is not duplicated. As we said, meiosis happens when it's time to reproduce. Meiosis is the great process that shuffles the cell's genes around. Plants do it, animals do it, and even fungi do it (sometimes). Instead of creating two new cells with equal numbers of chromosomes (like mitosis), the cell does a second division soon after the first. That second division divides the number of chromosomes in half. When you have half the number of chromosomes, you are called a haploid cell. Haploid means half the regular number. Diploid is the opposite (two strands). Normal cells are considered to be diploid cells.
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 STEP ONE MEIOSIS I: This is basically like the PMATI of a regular mitosis. Pairs of chromosomes are lined up at the center of the cell and then pulled to each side. Meiosis is a bit different because there something called crossing-over happens with the DNA.
This crossing over is an exchange of genes. The genes are mixed up, not resulting in a perfect duplicate like mitosis. The cell divides, leaving two new cells with a pair of chromosomes each. Normally the cell would begin to go about its business of living and slowly duplicate the chromosomes for another mitotic division. Since this is meiosis, there is a very short interphase and division begins again.
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 STEP TWO MEIOSIS II: In Prophase II the DNA that remains in the cell begins to condense and form short chromosomes. Each chromosome pair has a centromere. The centrioles also begin their journey to opposite sides of the cell. In Metaphase II all of the chromosomes line up along the center of the cell and the centrioles are in position for the duplication. Anaphase II shows the chromosomes split and move to opposite sides of the cell. Each one splits into two pieces. They don't divide up the DNA between the new cells; they split the DNA that exists. Each daughter cell will get one-half of the DNA needed to make a functioning cell. Telophase II shows the DNA completely pulled to the sides and the cell membrane begins to pinch. When it's all over, you are left with four haploid cells that are called gametes. The eventual purpose of the gametes will be to find other gametes with which they can combine. When they do, they will form a new organism.
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