Chapter 3

Analog Signal Transmission and

Reception
CONTENTS
Introduction to Modulations
Amplitude Modulation
Angle Modulation
Radio and Television Broadcasting
Mobile Radio Systems
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO
MODULATION
Denote m(t) as the analog signal to be transmitted.
The signal m(t) is assumed to be a lowpass signal of
bandwidth W and is a power-type signal with


The message signal m(t) is transmitted through the
communication channel by putting it on a carrier signal of
the form
}

=
2 /
2 /
2
) (
1
lim
T
T
T
m
dt t m
T
P
) 2 cos( ) (
c c c
t f A t c | t + =
carrier amplitude
carrier frequency carrier phase
The signal m(t) modulates the carrier signal c(t) in three
forms
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)
Objectives of modulation
Translate the low pass signal m(t) to bandpass signal to match the
passband characteristics of the channel.
Accommodate for simultaneous transmission - frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM).
Increase the noise immunity in transmission by expanding the
bandwidth of the transmitted signal.

3.2 AMPLITUDE
MODULATION (AM)
The message signal m(t) is impressed on the amplitude of
the carrier signal c(t).
Types of amplitude modulation
Double-sideband, suppressed carrier AM (DSB-SC AM)
Conventional double-sideband AM
Single-sideband AM (SSB AM)
Vestigial-sideband AM (VSB AM)

3.2.1 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier AM
A double-sideband, suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) AM
signal is obtained by multiplying the message signal m(t)
with the carrier signal c(t).
Amplitude modulated signal


The spectrum of the modulated signal can be obtained by
taking the Fourier transform of u(t).



) 2 cos( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
c c c
t f t m A
t c t m t u
| t + =
=
| | | |
| |
| |
c c
c c
j
c
j
c
c
c
j
c
j
c
c c c
e f f M e f f M
A
f f e f f e
A
f M
t f A F t m F f U
| |
| |
o o
| t

+ + =
+ + - =
+ - =
) ( ) (
2
) ( ) (
2
) (
) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
upper sideband
upper sideband
lower sideband
The magnitude of the spectrum of the message signal m(t)
has been translated or shifted in frequency by an amount
The phase of the message signal has been translated in
frequency and offset by the carrier phase
The bandwidth of the AM signal is 2W, where W is the
bandwidth of m(t).
The upper (lower) sideband of U(f) contains all the
frequency content of the message signal M(f).
u(t) does not contain carrier components - u(t) is called a
suppressed-carrier signal (DSB-SC AM signal)
c
f
c
|
To compute power content of DSB-SC signal, we first
evaluate the time-average autocorrelation function of the
signal u(t)




We may show that the following equation equals to zero.
| |
}
}
}

+ =
=
=
2 /
2 /
2
2 /
2 /
2
2 /
2 /
) 2 cos( ) 2 4 cos( ) ( ) (
1
lim
2
)) ( 2 cos( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
1
lim
) ( ) (
1
lim ) (
T
T
c c c
T
c
T
T
c c c
T
T
T
T
u
dt f f t f t m t m
T
A
dt t f t f t m t m A
T
dt t u t u
T
R
t t t t t t
t t t t
t t
| | { }
0
2
) 2 (
2
) 2 (
) (
) 2 4 cos( ) ( )] ( [
) 2 4 cos( ) ( ) (
*
2 2
2
*
=
(

+
+

=
=

}
}
}

df
e f f M e f f M
f M e
df f t f t m F t m F
dt f t f t m t m
c c
f j
c
f j
c
f j
c c
c c
t t t t
t t
t t t t
t t t t
Parsevals relation
No frequency overlap
) 2 cos( ) (
2
) (
2
t t t t
c m
c
u
f R
A
R =
Finally, we have


Taking Fourier transform of both sides


The power spectral density of the DSB-SC signal is the
power spectral density of the message shifted upward and
downward by and scaled by
The power of the modulated signal


where is the power of the message signal
| | ) ( ) (
4
) 2 cos( ) (
2
) (
2 2
c m c m
c
c m
c
u
f f S f f S
A
f R
A
F f S + + =
(

= t t t
c
f
2
/ 4
c
A
m
c
m
c
u u
P
A
R
A
R P
2
) 0 (
2
) 0 (
2 2
= = =
) 0 (
m m
R P =
In the absence of noise, and with the assumption of an
ideal channel, the received signal can be expressed as

Demodulation of DSB-SC AM signal
Multiply r(t) by a locally generated sinusoid
Pass the product signal through an ideal lowpass filter having a
bandwidth W.
Multiplication
Demodulation of DSB-SC AM Signal
) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( ) (
c c c
t f t m A t u t r | t + = =
) 2 cos( | t + t f
c

component frequency high component frequency low
) 4 cos( ) (
2
1
) cos( ) (
2
1
) 2 cos( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
c c c c c
c c c c c
t f t m A t m A
t f t f t m A t f t r
| | t | |
| t | t | t
+ + + =
+ + = +
Lowpass filter
) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
c c c
t f t m A t r | t + =
) 2 cos( | t + t f
c
) cos( ) (
2
1
| |
c c
t m A
Demodulator of DSB-SC AM signal
The lowpass filter rejects the high frequency components
and pass only the low frequency component. Hence, the
output of the filter is


Note that m(t) is multiplied by . Thus the desired
signal is scaled by a factor that depends on the phase
difference between the phase of the carrier and the
phase of the locally generated sinusoid.
If the amplitude of the desired signal is
reduced by
If the desired signal component vanishes.
For perfect demodulation, (Phase coherent)

) cos( ) (
2
1
) ( | | =
c c l
t m A t y
) cos( | |
c
c
|
|

45 = | |
c
2

90 = | |
c
| | =
c
Pilot Tone for Carrier Recovery in DSB
AM
Add a pilot tone to a DSB AM signal- additional power
requirement




Carrier recovery by a narrow band filter
3.2.2 Conventional Amplitude Modulation
A conventional AM signal consists of a large carrier
component in addition to the double sideband AM
modulated signal. The transmitted signal can be expressed
as



Advantage: easy to demodulate
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
c c c
t f t m A t u | t + + = 1 ) ( condition with s t m
component carrier : ) 2 cos(
signal AM DSB : ) 2 cos( ) (
c c c
c c c
t f A
t f t m A
| t
| t
+
+
It is convenient to express m(t) as

where is normalized such that

The above equation can be done by using


The scale factor a is called the modulation index. The
modulated signal can be expressed as

) ( ) ( t am t m
n
=
) (t m
n
1 ) ( max = t m
n
t
) ( max
) (
) (
t m
t m
t m
t
n
=
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) ( t f t am A t u
c n c
t + =
Overmodulated (a > 1)
The spectrum of the amplitude modulated signal u(t) is








The spectrum of a conventional AM signal occupies
bandwidth twice the bandwidth of the message signal.

| |
| |
|
| ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2
) ( ) (
2
) ( ) (
2
) (
)] 2 cos( [ )] 2 cos( [ )] ( [ ) (
c
j
c n
j
c
j
c n
j
c
c
j
c
j
c
c
j
c
j
c
n
c c c c c c n
f f e f f aM e
f f e f f aM e
A
f f e f f e
A
f f e f f e
A
f aM
t f A F t f A F t am F f U
c c
c c
c c
c c
+ + + +
+ =
+ + +
+ + - =
+ + + - =

o
o
o o
o o
| t | t
| |
| |
| |
| |
Example: Suppose that the modulating signal is a
sinusoid of the form

Determine the DSB AM signal, its upper and lower
sidebands, and its spectrum, assuming a modulation index
of a.
Solution: The conventional AM signal
c m m n
f f t f t m << = ) 2 cos( ) ( t
) (t m
n


component sideband upper
component sideband lower
) ) ( 2 cos(
2
) ) ( 2 cos(
2
) 2 cos(
) 2 cos( )] 2 cos( 1 [ ) (
c m c
c
c m c
c
c c c
c c m c
t f f
a A
t f f
a A
t f A
t f t f a A t u
| t
| t | t
| t t
+ + +
+ + + =
+ + =
The spectrum of the DSB AM signal
| |
| |
| | ) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
4
) ( ) (
2
) (
m c
j
m c
j
c
m c
j
m c
j
c
c
j
c
j
c
f f f e f f f e
a A
f f f e f f f e
a A
f f e f f e
A
f U
c c
c c
c c
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + =

o o
o o
o o
| |
| |
| |
We have already proved in the DSB-SC case, the power in
the modulated signal is



For the conventional AM




Finally, we have
m
c
u
P
A
P
2
2
=
signal message the in power :
m
P
n
m
T
T
n
T
T
T
n
T
m
P a
dt t m a
T
dt t am
T
P
2
2 /
2 /
2 2
2 /
2 /
2
1
)) ( 1 (
1
lim
)) ( 1 (
1
lim
+ =
+ =
+ =
}
}

contains no DC component
) (t m
n
n
m
c c
u
P a
A A
P
2
2 2
2 2
+ =
Carrier power
Message power
Advantage of conventional AM signal: easy to be
demodulated
Envelope detector
Output of the envelope detector
3.2.3 Single-Sideband AM
DSB-SC AM signal requires a channel bandwidth
of
The transmission of either sideband is sufficient to
reconstruct the message signal m(t) at the receiver.
We may reduce the transmitted bandwidth to W Hz by
transmitting only the upper sideband or the lower sideband.
A single sideband AM signal can be represented
mathematically as

:Hilbert transform of m(t).
Hz 2W B
c
=
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t m A t f t m A t u
c c c c
t t =
) ( t m
Generation of a single-sideband AM signal by Hilbert
transform
Generation of a single-sideband AM signal by bandpass
filter
Let m(t) be a signal with Fourier transform M(f).
An upper sideband AM signal is obtained by eliminating
the lower sideband of a DSB AM signal.
We may pass the DSB AM signal through a highpass filter
whose transfer function is given by


Obviously H(f) can be written as

>
=
otherwise 0
1
) (
c
f f
f H
) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 c c
f f u f f u f H + =

DSB SC AM signal
c
f
c
f
c
f
c
f
H(f)
c
f
c
f
USSB AM signal
[2 ( ) cos(2 )]
c c
F A m t f t t
The spectrum of the USSB AM signal is given by

Taking the inverse Fourier transform of both sides, we
obtain







) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
1 1 c c c c c c u
f f u f f M A f f u f f M A f U + + =

) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
)] ( ) ( [
2
)] ( ) ( [
2
2
) (
2
1
) (
2
) (
2
1
) ( ) (
2
) (
2
1
)] ( [ and
2
) (
2
1
)] ( [
)]) ( [ ) ( ( )]) ( [ ) ( ( ) (
2 2
2 2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1 2
1
1
t f t m A t f t m A
e t m j t m
A
e t m j t m
A
e
t
j
t t m A e
t
j
t t m A t u
t
j
t f u F
t
j
t f u F
e f u F t m A e f u F t m A t u
c c c c
t f j
c
t f j
c
t f j
c
t f j
c u
t f j
c
t f j
c u
c c
c c
c c
t t
t
o
t
o
t
o
t
o
t t
t t
t t
=
+ + =
(

- +
(

+ - =
= + =
- + - =

[ ( ) cos(2 )]
c c
F A m t f t t
[ ( )sin(2 )]
c c
F A m t f t t
For lower single sideband (LSSB) AM signal, notice

We have



Finally, we have proved








) ( ) ( ) ( t u t u t u
DSB l u
= +
| |
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( 2
) ( ) ( ) (
t f t m A t f t m A
t f t m A t f t m A t f t m A
t u t u t u
c c c c
c c c c c c
u DSB l
t t
t t t
+ =
=
=
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f t m A t f t m A t u
c c c c SSB
t t =
USSB AM
LSSB AM
To recover the message signal from SSB AM signal, we
require a phase coherent or synchronous demodulator.
First multiply the received signal with the local generated
carrier , we have



By passing the above signal through an ideal lowpass filter,
we have the output



For perfect demodulation, we must have .
) 2 cos( | t + t f
c
terms frequency double sin ) (
2
1
cos ) (
2
1
) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) (
+ + =
+ = +
| |
| t | t
t m A t m A
t f t u t f t r
c c
c c
| | sin ) (
2
1
cos ) (
2
1
) ( t m A t m A t y
c c l
+ =
desired signal
interference
0 = |
3.2.4 Vestigial-Sideband AM
Relaxing the SSB AM by allowing a part called vestige to
appear at the output of the modulator. The resulting signal
is called vestigial-sideband (VSB) AM.
Generation of VSB AM
generate a DSB-SC AM signal
pass the DSB-SC AM signal through a sideband filter with
frequency response H(f)

In the time-domain the VSB signal may be expressed as

: impulse response of the VSB filter
In frequency domain

Consider the demodulation of the VSB signal
| | ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t h t f t m A t u
c c
- = t
) (t h
| | ) ( ) ( ) (
2
) ( f H f f M f f M
A
f U
c c
c
+ + =
We have the product signal






The lowpass filter rejects the double-frequency terms and
pass only the components in the frequency range
The signal spectrum at the output of the lowpass filter is

Undistirtion requirement
| |
| |
| | ) ( ) ( ) 2 (
4
) ( ) ( ) 2 (
4
) ( ) (
2
1
) (
) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
c c
c
c c
c
c c
c
f f H f M f f M
A
f f H f M f f M
A
f f U f f U f V
t f t u t v
+ + + +
+ =
+ + =
= t
W f s
| | ) ( ) ( ) (
4
) (
c c
c
l
f f H f f H f M
A
f V + + =
W f f f H f f H
c c
s = + + constant ) ( ) (
3.2.5 Implementation of AM Modulator and
Demodulator
Power-Law Modulation
Nonliear device
voltage-current characteristic of P-N diode
input is the sum of the message signal and the carrier






Let be the input signal. The output of the nonlinear
device can be expressed as

) ( ) (
1
t v a t v
n
i
n
n o

=
=
) (t v
i
Power-Law AM modulator






Suppose that the nonlinear device is approximated by a
second order polynomial.


) ( ) (
2
1
t v a t v
n
i
n
n o
=
=
Input to the nonlinear device

Output of the nonlinear device



The band pass filter with bandwidth 2W centered at
yields


where by design
) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f A t m t v
c c i
t + =
| | | |
) 2 cos( ) (
2
1 ) 2 ( cos ) ( ) (
) 2 cos( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
1
2
1
2 2
2
2
2 1
2
2 1
t f t m
a
a
a A t f A a t m a t m a
t f A t m a t f A t m a t v
c c c c
c c c c o
t t
t t
(

+ + + + =
+ + + =
c
f f =
) 2 cos( ) (
2
1 ) (
1
2
1
t f t m
a
a
a A t u
c c
t
(

+ =
1 / ) ( 2
1 2
< a t m a
Switching Modulator
Assume that
Let
The diode will turn on if and will turn off if
The output across the load resistor is




Since s(t) is a periodic rectangular function, the Fourier
series is


) (t m A
c
>>
0 ) ( > t c 0 ) ( s t c
) 2 cos( ) ( t f A t c
c c
t =
) ( )] 2 cos( ) ( [
) ( ) (
0 ) ( 0
0 ) ( ) (
) (
0
t s t f A t m
t s t v
t c
t c t v
t v
c c
i
i
t + =
=

s
>
=
| |

+ =
1
1
) 1 2 ( 2 cos
1 2
) 1 ( 2
2
1
) (
n
c
n
n t f
n
t s t
t
Hence



Passing through a bandpass filter, we have

s other term ) 2 cos( ) (
4
1
2
) ( )] 2 cos( ) ( [ ) (
0
+
(

+ =
+ =
t f t m
A
A
t s t f A t m t v
c
c
c
c c
t
t
t
) 2 cos( ) (
4
1
2
) ( t f t m
A
A
t u
c
c
c
t
t
(

+ =
) (
0
t v
Balanced Modulator for DSB-SC AM signal
Ring modulator for DSB-SC AM








If c(t) > 0, 1, 4 on, and 2, 3 off,
If c(t) < 0, 1,4 off, and 2,3 on,

) ( ) ( t m t v
o
=
2
3
4
1
) ( ) ( t m t v
o
=
C(t)
) (t v
o
Therefore, we have

Since c(t) is a periodic function, the Fourier series can be
expressed as


The desired DSB-SC AM signal is obtained by passing
through a bandpass filter with center frequency and
bandwidth 2W.

) ( ) ( ) ( t c t m t v
o
=
| |

=
1
1
) 1 2 ( 2 cos
1 2
) 1 ( 4
) (
n
c
n
t n f
n
t c t
t
) (
0
t v
c
f
Demodulation of DSB-SC AM Signals
Demodulation of SSB Signals with pilot tone
3.2.6 Signal Multiplexing
Multiplexing: The process of combining a number of
separate message signals into a composite signal for
transmission over a common channel.
All message signals can be recovered at the receivers.
Three common methods
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is used to transmit digital
signals.
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) is used to transmit either
analog or digital signals.
Code-division multiplexing (CDM) is used to transmit digital
signals.


Frequency Division Multiplexing
The message signals are separated in frequency; each
signal modulates a separated carrier.
The lowpass filters at the transmitter ensures that the
bandwidth of the message signals is limited to W Hz.

At the receiver, the signals are usually separated by
passing through a parallel bank of bandpass filters.
The output of each bandpass filter is demodulated.

FDM system
Quadrature-Carrier Multiplexing
Two message signal and .
Transmit two message signals on the same carrier frequency
Two signals are modulated into u(t) by

The two message signals are demodulated by


) (
1
t m ) (
2
t m
) 2 sin( ) ( ) 2 cos( ) ( ) (
2 1
t f t m A t f t m A t u
c c c c
t t + =
)] 2 sin( ) ( [ ) (
)] 2 cos( ) ( [ ) (
2
1
t f t u LPF t m
t f t u LPF t m
c
c
t
t
=
=
AM-radio Broadcasting
Commercial AM-radio broadcasting utilizes the frequency
band 535-1605 kHz for the transmission of voice and
music. Carrier spacing is 10 kHz.
The baseband message signal m(t) is limited to 5 kHz.
Conventional AM is used from an economic standpoint.
The major objective is to reduce the cost of implementing
the receiver.
3.3 ANGLE MODULATION
Angle modulation
Frequency modulation (FM): Frequency is changed by the
message signal.
Phase modulation (PM): Phase is changed by the message signal.
High degree of noise immunity by bandwidth expansion.
They are widely used in high-fidelity music broadcasting.
They are of constant envelope, which is beneficial when
amplified by nonlinear amplifiers.
An angle-modulated signal

: the phase of the signal.
Instantaneous frequency is given by


Since u(t) is a bandpass signal, it can be represented as
3.3.1 Presentation of FM and PM Signal
)) ( cos( ) ( t A t u
c
u =
) (t u
) (t f
i
) (
2
1
) ( t
dt
d
t f
i
u
t
=
)) ( 2 cos( ) ( t t f A t u
c c
| t + =
) (
2
1
) ( t
dt
d
f t f
c i
|
t
+ =
If m(t) is the message signal, then in a PM system we have


In an FM system


From the above relationships we have



On the other hand
) ( ) ( t m k t
p
= |
) (
2
1
) ( ) ( t
dt
d
t m k f t f
f c i
|
t
= =
: phase deviation constant p
k
: frequency deviation constant f
k

=
}

FM d m k
PM t m k
t
t
f
p
t t t
|
) ( 2
) (
) (

=
FM t m k
PM t m
dt
d
k
t
dt
d
f
p
) ( 2
) (
) (
t
|
The maximum phase deviation in a PM system

The maximum frequency-deviation in an FM system
| | ) ( max
max
t m k
p
= A|
| | ) ( max
max
t m k f
f
= A
The message signal is used to either FM or PM for
the carrier . Find the modulated signal in each case.
Solution:


we have




Modulation index for a general m(t)
) 2 cos( ) ( t f a t m
m
t =
) 2 cos( t f A
c c
t
) 2 cos( ) ( ) ( t f a k t m k t
m p p
t | = =
) 2 sin( ) ( 2 ) ( t f
f
a k
d m k t
m
m
f
t
f
t t t t | = =
}

PM FM

+
+
=
FM t f t f A
PM t f t f A
t u
m f c c
m p c c
)) 2 sin( 2 cos(
)) 2 cos( 2 cos(
) (
t | t
t | t
m f f
p p
f a k
a k
/ =
=
|
|
Modulation index
| |
| | W f W t m k
t m k
f f
p p
/ / ) ( max
) ( max
max
max
A = =
A = =
|
| |
Narrowband Angle Modulation: If for all , we have
then we can use the approximation



The modulation is very similar to conventional AM
t
1 ) ( << t |
( ) cos(2 ( ))
cos(2 ) cos( ( )) sin(2 )sin( ( ))
cos(2 ) ( )sin(2 )
c c
c c c c
c c c c
u t A f t t
A f t t A f t t
A f t A t f t
t |
t | t |
t | t
= +
=
~
Assume that the message is a sinusoidal signal



The signal is periodic with period .
The same is also true for the complex exponential signal

Fourier series representation with coefficient



3.3.2 Spectral Characteristics of Angle-
Modulated Signals
| |
) 2 sin( 2
Re
)) 2 sin( 2 cos( ) (
t f j t f j
c
m c c
m c
e e A
t f t f A t u
t | t
t | t
=
+ =
) 2 sin( t f
m
t
m m
f T / 1 =
) 2 sin( t f j
m
e
t |
du e
dt e e f c
nu u j
t f u
f
t f jn t f j
m n
m
m
m m
}
}

=
=
t
|
t
t t |
t
2
0
) sin (
2
1
0
2 ) 2 sin(
2
1
:Bessel function
of the first kind of
order n
) (|
n
J
Therefore, we have


Finally we obtain




The actual bandwidth of the modulated signal is infinite.
However, the amplitude of the sinusoidal components of
frequencies for large n is very small.
Property:

=
=
n
t nf j
n
t f j
m m
e J e
t t |
|
2 ) 2 sin(
) (

=
+ =
(

=
n
m c n c
t f j
n
t nf j
n c
t nf f J A
e e J A t u
c m
) ) ( 2 cos( ) (
) ( Re ) (
2 2
t |
|
t t
m c
nf f

odd ) (
even ) (
) (
n J
n J
J
n
n
n
|
|
|
Example:


Find the expression for the frequency modulated signal and
determine how many harmonics should be selected to
contain 99% of the modulated signal power.
Solution: The total power
The modulated signal


) 2 cos( 10 ) ( t f t c
c
t =
) 20 cos( ) ( t t m t =
50 =
f
k
50
2
100
2
2
= = =
c
c
A
P
( ) ) 20 sin( 5 2 cos 10
) 20 sin(
10
50
2 cos 10
) 20 cos( 2 2 cos 10 ) (
t t f
t t f
d k t f t u
c
c
t
f c
t t
t t
t tt t t
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
}

The modulation index is given by


Therefore




We have to choose k large enough such that


The solution k=6.


| |
5
) ( max
= =
m
f
f
t m
k |
) ) 10 ( 2 cos( ) 5 ( 10
) ) ( 2 cos( ) ( ) (
t n f J
t nf f J A t u
c
n
n
m c
n
n c
+ =
+ =

=
t
t |

=
>
k
k n
n
J
50 99 . 0
2
) 5 ( 100
2
In general the effective bandwidth of an angle-modulated signal, which
contains at least 98% of the signal power, is given by

Let the message signal be given by

The bandwidth of the modulated signal is given by



FM occupies less bandwidth then PM .
Carsons rule: For general message signal, the bandwidth of the angle-
modulated signal is given by


m c
f B ) 1 ( 2 + = |
) 2 cos( ) ( t f a t m
m
t =
( )
( )
( )

+
+
= + =
FM f a k
PM f a k
f B
m f
m p
m c
2
1 2
1 2 |
W B
c
) 1 ( 2 + = |
| |
| |

=
FM
W
t m k
PM t m k
f
p
) ( max
) ( max
|
Design an oscillator whose frequency changes with the
input voltage.
Voltage-controlled oscillator
Varactor diode - capacitance changed with the applied voltage.
A inductor with the varactor diode is used in the oscillator
circuit.



3.3.3 Implementation of Angle Modulators
and Demodulators
0
L
Let the capacitance of the varactor diode is given by

When m(t) = 0, the frequency of the tuned circuit is given
by

In general for nonzero m(t), we have



Assuming that


We have


) ( ) (
0 0
t m k C t C + =
0 0
2
1
C L
f
c
t
=
) ( 1
1
) ( 1
1
2
1
)) ( ( 2
1
) (
0
0
0
0 0 0 0 0 0
t m
C
k
f
t m
C
k C L t m k C L
t f
c i
+
=
+
=
+
=
t t
0
0
1
1 1 1 and 1 / 2
( ) 2 1 / 2
k
C m t
c
c c c
c
= << + ~ + ~
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
= ) (
2
1 ) (
0
0
t m
C
k
f t f
c i
Indirect method for generation of FM and PM signals
generate a narrow band angle-modulated signal
change the narrow band signal to wideband signal


Generate wideband angle-modulated signals from narrow
band angle-modulated signals
frequency multiplier
implemented by nonlinear device and bandpass filters


Using down converter


)) ( ) ( 2 cos( ) ( t n t f nf A t u
LO c c
| t + =
Input: ( ) cos(2 ( )) Output: ( ) cos(2 ( ))
n c c c c
u t A f t t y t A nf t n t t | t | = + = +
A nonlinear device followed by a bandpass filter tuned to
the desired center frequency can be used as frequency
multiplier.
For example, assume a nonlinear device has the function


The output signal will be



The frequency is multiplied by a factor of 2.

2
( ) ( )
n
y t u t =
2 2
2
2
( ) cos (2 ( ))
1
cos(2 (2 ) 2 ( ))
2 2
c c
c
c c
y t A f t t
A
A f t t
t |
t |
= +
= + +
FM demodulation
generate an AM signal
use AM demodulator to recover the message signal
Pass the FM signal through a filter with response

If the input to the system is

the output

The above signal is an AM signal.
2
for ) ( ) (
0
c
c c
B
f f f f k V f H < + =
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
}

t
f c c
d m k t f A t u t t t t ) ( 2 2 cos ) (
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
}

t
f c f c
d m k t f t m kk V A t v t t t t ) ( 2 2 cos )) ( ( ) (
0 0
FM Signal
( ) u t
Output Signal
( ) x t
R
L C
(a) (b)
Linear Region
f
c
f
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
FM to AM converter: Tuned circuit implementation
But, usually the linear region of the frequency characteristic
may not be wide enough.
Balanced discriminator
use two tuned circuits
connect in series to form a
linear frequency response
region.
R
R
1
L
1
C
2
L
2
C
( ) u t ( ) m t
Bandpass filter Envelope detector
(a)
f
1
f
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
2
f
(b)
f
1
f
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
2
f
(c)
Linear region
FM demodulator with feedback
FM demodulator with phase-locked loop (PLL)






Input :
VCO output:

Phase Comparator:
| | ) ( 2 cos ) ( t t f A t u
c c
| t + = t t t | d m k t
t
f
}

= ) ( 2 ) (
| | ) ( 2 sin ) ( t t f A t y
v c v v
| t + = t t t | d v k t
t
v v
}

= ) ( 2 ) (
) ( )] ( ) ( [ )] ( ) ( sin[ ) ( t t t t t A A t e
e v v c v
| | | | | = =
Linearized model of the PLL







or







t t t | | d v k t t
t
v e
}
=
0
) ( 2 ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) (
) ( ) ( 2 ) (
0
t
dt
d
d t g k t
dt
d
t
dt
d
t v k t
dt
d
e v e
v e
| t t t | t |
| t |
= +
= +
}

By taking the Fourier transform

Suppose that we design G(f) such that





) (
) ( 1
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) ( 1
1
) (
) ( ) 2 ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( ) 2 (
f
f G
jf
k
f G
f G f f V
f
f G
jf
k
f
f f j f G f k f f j
v
e
v
e
e v e
u
|
.
|

\
|
+
= u =
u
|
.
|

\
|
+
= u
u = u + u t t t
1
) (
>>
jf
f G
k
v
) (
2
2
) ( f
k
f j
f V
v
u =
t
t
) ( ) (
2
1
) ( t m
k
k
t
dt
d
k
t v
v
f
v
= = |
t
v(t) is the demodulated signal
3.4 RADIO AND TELEVISION
BROADCASTING
AM Radio
FM Radio
Television
AM Radio Broadcasting
535-1605 kHz
10 kHz carrier spacing
bandwidth of m(t) is 5kHz.
Superheterodyne receiver with intermediate frequency
two frequency components and are produced after
the mixer
3.4.1 AM Radio Broadcasting
kHz 455 =
IF
f
IF c LO
f f f + =
IF
f
IF c
f f + 2
Rejection of the radio signal at the image frequency

Assume there are two received signal


The mixer output consists of the two signals



The RF amplifier bandwidth is designed to be sufficiently
narrow so that the image frequency signal is rejected

The IF amplifier has bandwidth of 10kHz to reject signal
from adjacent channels.
IF LO c
f f f + =
'
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
'
2 2
1 1
t f t m A t r
t f t m A t r
c c
c c
t
t
+ =
+ =
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ ) (
2 2
1 1
t f t m A t y
t f t m A t y
IF c
IF c
t
t
+ =
+ =
Desired signal
Interference
from image
channel
IF RF
f B 2 <
FM Radio Broadcasting
88 - 108 MHz
200 kHz carrier spacing
peak-frequency deviation 75 kHz
Superheterodyne receiver with intermediate frequency
3.4.2 FM Radio Broadcasting
MHz 7 . 10 =
IF
f
IF c LO
f f f + =
kHz BW 200 =
FM-Stereo Broadcasting
Many FM-stereo stations transmit music programs
in stereo by using the outputs of two microphones.
A pilot tone at the frequency of 19 kHz is added to
the signal for the purpose of demodulating the
DSB-SC AM signal.
A monophonic FM receiver can recover the
summed signal L+R by using a conventional FM
demodulator. Hence, FM-stereo broadcasting is
compatible with conventional FM.
FM Stereo Transmitter
FM Stereo Receiver
1936 BBC black-and-white picture transmission
Black-and-white TV Signal.
The two dimensional image is converted to a one-
dimensional electrical signal by sequentially scanning the
image.
The scanning of the electron beam in the CRT is controlled
by two voltage applied across the horizontal and vertical
deflection plates.
In commercial TV broadcasting, the bandwidth of the
video signal is is limited to W = 4.2Mhz.
VSB modulation is employed, the total transmission
bandwidth is around 6Mhz.
3.4.3 Television Broadcasting
Interlaced pattern with rate 1/60 sec
A typical video signal
The audio portion of the TV signal is
transmitted is limited to W= 10 kHz.
The peak frequency deviation in the FM-
modulated signal is selected as 25 kHz, and
the FM-signal bandwidth is 70 kHz.
3.5 Mobile Radio Systems
Cellular concept
Terminologies
The simultaneous transmission between two
parties is called full-duplex operation.
In analog cellular system, the 3 kHz audio
signal is transmitted via FM using a channel
bandwidth of 30 kHz. This represents a
bandwidth expansion of approximately a
factor of 10.