Chapter six

Learning

Learning

Definition
A relatively permanent change in behavior

brought about by experience. Changes in behavior because of maturation, accidents, fatigue, or lack of effort is not called learning.
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Three forms of learning:

1. Classical conditioning

2. Operant conditioning
3. Cognitive-social learning
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Classical Conditioning

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1904) developed the

principles of classical
conditioning.

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Neutral stimulus

A stimulus that, before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned.
Unconditioned response (UCR)

A response that is natural and need no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food).
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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A once-neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response

A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell).
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Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about the response of interest.

Conditioned = learned
Unconditioned = not learned

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Extinction
The CR is acquired gradually over many parings of
the CS and UCS. Once the CR is established, if the CS is no longer followed by the UCS, the CR ceases

to occur. This is called extinction which occurs

gradually.

Spontaneous recovery
The reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after period of rest and with no further

conditioning.
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Stimulus generalization
In classical conditioning, organisms may give conditioned
response to stimuli which are similar but not identical to the original CS. This is known as generalization. The more similar

the two stimuli are, the more likely generalization is to occur.

Stimulus discrimination
The ability to differentiate between stimuli.

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Operant Conditioning
1. If an organism exhibits a behavior and receives a positive reinforcer, the rate of behavior will increase. 2. If a particular behavior causes a negative reinforcer to be removed, that behavior will also increase. 3. If the organism exhibits a behavior and receives a punisher, the rate of behavior will decrease.
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Reinforcement
The process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

Reinforcer
Any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.

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Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

A primary reinforcer satisfies some biological need and

works naturally regardless of a personas prior experience.

For example, food.

A secondary reinforcer is a stimulus that becomes

reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer. For example-money.

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Positive reinforcer
A positive reinforcer is any stimulus whose presentation increases the probability that a behavior will occur.

Example: food, water, money, praise etc.

Negative reinforcer
A negative reinforcer is a stimulus whose removal increase the probability that a behavior will occur. Example: taking an aspirin to relieve a headache.

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Punishment
A punishment is a stimulus whose presentation decreases

the probability a behavior will occur. Example: spanking a child for misbehaving

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Use of Reinforcer Learning

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Use of Reinforcer
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Use of Punishment

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Schedules of Reinforcement

Definition
Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior.

Types
A. Continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF)

B. Partial (or intermittent) reinforcement schedule (PRF)

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In continuous reinforcement schedule a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. In partial reinforcement schedule a behavior is reinforced some but not all of the time. Learning occurs more rapidly under a continuous reinforcement schedule. However, behavior lasts longer after reinforcement

stops when it is learned under a partial

reinforcement Schedule.
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There are two basic types of PRF schedule:

1. Ratio schedule 2. Interval schedule In interval schedule, the reinforcer is delivered after a certain interval of time has passed. In ratio schedule, the reinforcer is delivered after the organism responds a certain number of times.

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Ratio Schedule
There are two basic types of ratio schedule:
1. Fixed ratio (FR) schedule 2. Variable ratio (VR) schedule
In a FR schedule reinforcement is given only after a

specific number of responses are made.

People on FR schedules are apt to work as quickly as possible.

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In a VR schedule reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than a fixed number. VR schedule lead to a high rate of response and resistance to extinction.

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Interval Schedule
There are two types of interval schedule:
1. Fixed-interval (FI) schedule
2. Variable-interval (VI) schedule In FI schedule reinforcement is provided for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed. In FI schedule the overall rates of response is relatively low.
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In VI schedule the time between reinforcement varies around some average rather than being fixed. VI schedule are more likely to produce relatively

steady rates of responding than are fixed interval

schedules, with responses that take longer to extinguish after reinforcement ends.

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Cognitive-Social Approaches to Learning

An approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning.

Types:
1. Latent learning

2. Observational learning

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In latent learning new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for

displaying it.

People develop cognitive map of their surroundings

a mental representation of spatial locations and

direction.

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Observational learning is learning through observing the behavior of another person called a model.

If the model is rewarded for his or her behavior, the witness will learn or carry out that behavior. But if

the models behavior is punished then the behavior

will not be mimicked.

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