Cognition a

n d Language
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Cognitive psychology
The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes, including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reasoning, judging, and decision making.

Thinking
Thinking is the manipulation of mental representation of information
A representation may be in the form of a word, a visual image, a sound, or data in any other modality.
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A major part of our thinking involves mental images. Representation in the mind that resemble the object or event being represented.
Every sensory modality may produce corresponding mental images.

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Our mental images have many of the properties of

the actual perception of objects being represented. For example, it takes the mind

longer to scan mental images of large objects, just as the eye takes longer to scan an actual

large object than an actual small one. Similarly,

we are able to manipulate and rotate mental images of objects, just as we are able to manipulate and rotate them in the real world.
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Mental-Rotation Tasks

Imagine a Capital letter T. Rotate it 90 degrees to the right.

Put a triangle to the left of the figure, pointing to the right.

Rotate the figure 90 degrees to the right. Which of these figures is the correct one?
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We use concepts to organize complex phenomena into simpler, easily useable, cognitive categories. Categorization of objects, events, or people that share

common properties.
Concepts help us classify newly encountered

objects on the basis of our past experience.

Concepts influence our behavior

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Types of Concepts:
1. Well-defined concepts

2. Ill-defined concepts
Well-defined concepts are clearly defined by a unique set of properties or features. For example, an equilateral triangle. Ill-defined concepts are more ambiguous and difficult to define. For example, table.

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Ill-defined or ambiguous concepts are thought in terms of prototypes. Typical, highly representative examples of a concept. Example: Sport

Football
Cricket Basketball

Golf
Chess

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Concepts and prototypes facilitate our efforts to draw suitable conclusions through the cognitive process called reasoning.

The process by which information is used to draw

conclusions and make decisions.

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How people reason and make decisions?

In two ways: 1) Formal reasoning (Syllogistic reasoning) 2) Cognitive shortcuts (Algorithm and heuristics)

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Syllogistic reasoning Syllogistic reasoning is a kind of formal reasoning in which people draw a conclusion from a set of assumptions. Also known as premises All men are mortal Socrates is a man Therefore, Socrates is mortal. [Premise] [Premise] [Conclusion]

Syllogistic reasoning is accurate only if the premises and the validity of logic applied to the premises are accurate.
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Algorithm and Heuristics

Algorithm is a methodical, logical rule or procedure that
guarantees solving a particular problem

Example, the length of the third side of a right triangle can be found by using the formula:

a b
2

A heuristic is a cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution, but, unlike algorithm, they cannot ensure it.

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Thinking
Unscramble

SPLOYOCHYG
Algorithm
all 907,208 combinations

Heuristic
throw out all YY combinations other heuristics?
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Problem Solving
Problem solving typically involves three major steps:

1. Preparing to create solutions 2. Producing solutions 3. Evaluating the solutions that have been generated

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1. Preparation: Understanding and Diagnosing Problems

If the problem is a novel one, people pay more attention on different aspects of the problem. While they spend considerably less time in this preparation stage if the problem is a familiar one.

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Nature of problems:
1. Well-defined problem. In well-defined problem nature

of the problem and the information needed to solve it are available.

2. Ill-defined problem.
problem are unclear.

In ill-defined problem the specific

nature of the problem and the information required to solve the

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2. Production: Generating Solutions

If the problem is relatively simple we retrieve appropriate information from long-term memory and solve it. If we do not

know the solution we generate possible solutions through

several techniques or strategies: i) Trial and error Some problems are so complicated that it would take a

lifetime to try out every possibilities.

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ii) Heuristics

Means-ends-analysis. It involves repeated testing for differences

between the desired outcome and what currently exists.

Divide the problem into subgoals and solve each of those steps.
Insight. A sudden awareness of the relationships among various

elements that had previously appeared to be independent of

one another.

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Insight
z Wolfgang Kohlers experiment on insight by a chimpanzee

3. Judgment: Evaluating the Solutions

If the solution is clear, we will know immediately that we have been successful. If there is no single correct solution, evaluating solutions becomes more difficult. In such instances, we must decide which alternative solution is best.

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Impediments to Solutions: Why is Problem Solving Such a Problem

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The Candle-Mounting Problem

z Using these materials, how would you mount the candle on a bulletin board?

The Candle-Mounting Problem

z Solving this problem requires recognizing that a box need not always serve as a container

1. Functional Fixedness
The tendency to think of an object only in terms of
its typical use.

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The Three-Jugs Problem

Using jugs A, B, and C, with the capacities shown, how would you measure out the volumes indicated?

2. Mental set
The tendency for old patterns of problem
solving to persist.

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3. Confirmation Bias The problem solver with this bias favor initial hypotheses and ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypotheses or solutions.

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Creativity and Problem Solving

Creativity is the combining of responses or ideas in novel ways.
Factors associated with creativity

1. Divergent thinking. The ability to generate unusual, yet nonetheless appropriate, responses to problems or questions. 2. Convergent thinking. The ability to produce responses that are based primarily on knowledge and logic.
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