AC NETWORK ANALYSIS

AC VS DC ENERGY STORAGE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS RESISTORS LINEAR ELEMENTS, DISSIPATE ENERGY CAPACITORS AND INDUCTORS

IDEAL CAPACITOR A DEVICE THAT CAN STORE ENERGY IN THE FORM OF CHARGE SEPARATION WHEN VOLTAGE IS APPLIED

Structure of parallel-plate capacitor

DOES NOT ALLOW DC CURRENT DUE TO INSULATION BETWEEN TWO PLATES IN A C, CHARGE SEPARATION IS PROPORTIONAL TO APPLIED VOLTAGE

Figure 4.2, 4.3

Q = CV or q(t) = Cv(t)
VOLTAGE-CURRENT RELATIONSHIP

i(t) = C dv(t)/dt
vc(t) = 1/C ic dt + V0
(how does this relationship come up? reading assignment)

Combining capacitors in a circuit

Rule of thumb C in parallel add. C in series combined according to R in parallel

(Prove this)

(Prove this)

Ex determining current for a C given voltage

i(t)
+

V(t) V + C = 1 F 10

Plot q(t) and i(t)?

t (s)

Energy stored in C
Energy is the integral of power , recall : p = v.i

p(t) = v(t). C dv/dt

pc(t) = C.vc(t) dvc/dt So, Wc(t) = Pc(t) dt = Cvc2(t) or vc(t)q(t)
(prove this)

Inductance and practical inductors

IDEAL INDUCTOR resistance is zero , so for DC current, acts as a short cct

If v(t) is applied, i(t) will result

vL(t) = L diL/dt
Figure 4.10

iL(t) = 1/L vL dt + I0

Combining inductors in a circuit

Figure 4.12

(Prove these)

Energy stored in L
Energy is the integral of power , recall : p = v.i

p(t) = L diL/dt . iL(t)

pL(t) = L . iL(t) diL/dt So, WL(t) = PL(t) dt = LiL2(t)
(prove this)

TIME DEPENDENT SIGNAL SOURCES

Periodic signal waveforms
x(t) = x(t + nT) ; n=1,2,3,

Sinusoidal waveforms
generalized sinusoid; x(t) = A Cos(t + )

Sinusoidal waveforms x1(t)

x1(t) = A Cos (t) x2(t) = A Cos (t + )
f = natural freq = 1/T cycles/s or Hz

Figure 4.17, 4.18

= radian freq = 2f rad/s

x2(t)

Can represent a sine wave in terms of cosine wave by introducing a phase shift of /2 rad : A Sin(t) = A Cos (t - /2)

Q : why are we interested in sinusoid?

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AVERAGE AND RMS VALUES

-TO MEASURE THE STRENGTH OF TIME VARYING SIGNALS : 1. THE AVERAGE (OR DC) VALUE 2. THE ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUE TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE FLUCTUATION OF THE SIGNAL ABOUT ITS AVERAGE VALUE

DEFINE THE AVERAGE VALUE OF x(t): < x(t) > = 1/T

0 T

x(t) dt

Figure 4.22 - ave value T period of integration

Ex: Compute the average value of x(t) = 10 Cos(100t), w = 100 rad/s

T

< x(t)> = 1/T =0

0

10 cos 100t dt

Ex2: v(t) = 155.6 Sin (377t + /6), express v(t) in Cosine form, w = 377 rad/s V(t) = 155.6 cos (377t + /6 /2) = 155.6 cos (377t /3) V

Ex3: compute the average value of v(t) V(t) V

0
T

5 V(t) dt
0

10

t (ms)

< V(t) > = 1/T

= 1.5 V

A useful measure of the strength of AC signals is rms value defined as: Xrms =
T

1/T
0

x (t) dt

We use Vrms or V and Irms or I to refer to rms values of a voltage and current
Ex 1: find rms value of i(t) = I Cos(t)
Irms = I/ 2 = 0.707 (I) Only for sinnusoidal signals

For a sinusoid signal the rms value is equal to 0.707 times the peak value, independent of its amplitude and frequency.

Phasors (frequency domain)

A notation to represent sinusoid signals as complex numbers and eliminate the need to solve differential equation. We can write sinusoid signals in terms of complex numbers based on Eulers Identity

A Cos(t + ) = Re (A e j(t + ) )
Where from Eulers identity: e j = Cos + j Sin Can also write in terms of polar form (magnitude and angle:

A e j = A

Summary: any sinusoid in time domain v(t) = A Cos(t + ) can be represented in terms of frequency domain (phasor) form V(jw) = A e j = A

ex

V2(t)

Vs(t)

V1(t)

V1(t) = 15 cos (377t + /4) V

V2(t) = 15 cos (377t + /12) V Find eqVs(t) Write in phasor forms

The impedance
In AC circuits, 3 elements, R, L, C will be described as impedance (complex resistance)

Figure 4.29

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Impedances of R, L, and C in the complex plane

Figure 4.33

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Figure 4.37

Figure 4.37

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AC circuit analysis methods

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Identify sinusoidal source(s) and note the freq Convert source(s) to phasor form Represent each cct element with its impedance Solve using appropriate method Convert phasor form to time domain equivalent

Figure 4.41

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AC Thevenin equivalent circuits

ex

Rs C Vs(t)
+

a R RL

Rs = R1 = RL = 50 C = 0.1 F L = 10 mH Vs(t) = 10 cos 1000t V

1) Vs(jw)

Find the Thevenin eq. cct seen by RL ZL Zs

+

ZC

ZR

ZL

ZL Zs Vs(jw)
+

ZC

ZR ZT

ZT = ((Zs + ZL//Zc))//ZR = 25.37 5.6 = 25.25 + j 2.48

Zs + ZL//Zc

ZR

ZT
2) Find VT Zs Vs(jw) = 100
+

ZL//Zc
+ ZR Voc

Voc =

Vs ZR Zs + ZL//Zc + ZR
(10 0)(50) 50 + j 10.01 + 50

= 4.985.72 V VT = Voc = 4.985.72 V I = Vs(jw) Zs + ZL//Zc + ZR ZT = 25.375.6 V

+

Voc = I ZR

VT = 4.985.7 V

R1 = 1 M R1 C1 C1 = 1x 109 F Find equivalent Impedance

ZR1 = R1 ZR1 ZC1 ZC1 = 1/jwC1

Zeq = ZR1//ZC1
= R1 (1/jwC1) R1 + (1/jwC1) = R1 1 + jwC1R1 =
5

1 x 106 1 + j (377)(1x109 )(1x10 6 )

= 9.346 x 10 20.66 = R x j X

Ex 2: R R = 0.136 L = 0.098 H L

ZR Zeq ZL

Zeq = ZR + ZL = R + jwL

AC Power
When a cct is excited by sinusoidal source, all voltage and currents are also sinusoidal with same freq The most general form for voltage and current delivered to a load
v(t) = V Cos (t v) and i(t) = I Cos (t i) Instantaneous power is given by the product of voltage and current, so p(t) = v(t).i(t) = VI Cos(t).Cos(t ), where = v i using trigo identity; p(t) = VI Cos + VI Cos(2 t - ) Power is equal to sum of an average component and a sinusoidal component

Pave = VI Cos - Average Power Or = V2/Z Cos

Note: to eliminate the factor, in AC power analysis, normally use rms values Vrms = V/2 ; Irms = I/ 2 So Pave = Vrms . Irms Cos

Power Factor
The ave power is dependent on the cosine of the angle of impedance To recognise its importance, the term Cos() is referred to as the power factor (pf) Pf can range from 0 to 1. for purely resistive load pf=1, for purely inductive or capacitive pf=0 Pave = Vrms . Irms Cos ; pf = Cos

= Pave / (Vrms . Irms )

Complex Power
From expression of instantaneous power

P(t) = VI/2 cos + VI/2 cos (2wt - )

= Vrms/|Z| [ cos + cos cos (2wt) + sinsin(2wt)] = Irms |Z| [cos + coscos(2wt) + sinsin(2wt)] = Irms |Z| cos[1 + cos (2wt)] + Irms |Z| sinsin(2wt)

This suggest p(t) consists of 3 comps:

1) Average comp. ave power (Pave) (also called real power) Pave = Irms R ; R = ReZ 2) 3) A time varying comp with zero ave power due to fluctuation and resistive component ; PR(t) = Irms Rcos(2wt) A time varying component with zero ave power due to power fluctuation in reactive component Px(t) = Irms X sin 2wt = Q sin 2wt

where X = Im Z and Q is called the reactive power

Pave = Preal = Irms R (W) Q = Irms X (VAR)

SIMPLIFIED FORMULA FOR COMPLEX POWER; S = P + jQ

S = VRMSIRMS*

Ex:

Rs
+

Vs = 1100
Rs = 2 Rc C

+
VL

Vs

RL = 5 C = 2000 F

f = 60 Hz

Load

1)
2)

Calculate real/average and reactive power for the load

Calculate pf = cos

Rules for impedance and admittance reduction

Figure 4.45

Figure 4.45

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