Scientific

Research in Medecine
.
1. STAGES AND ELEMENTS WITHIN THE
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH- GENERAL
CONSIDERATIONS

 1.1. Choosing the topic

 1.2. Defining the work theory
 1.3. Elaborating the plan
 1.4. Bibliographical documentation
 1.5. The development of the research
plan
 1.6. The analysis of the results
1.1. Choosing the topic
 - the interest for a specific field - individual
motivation
 - the amount of general theoretical knowledge
 - the amount of theoretical knowledge in the
field (to inquire into the field individually)
 - documentation possibilities
 - prior knowledge
 - practical aptitudes
1.2. Defining the work theory
 Consideration points:
 - defining aspects on the subject
 - the existence of former concerns
 - suggestions of solutions
 - the existing unknown quantity
 - possible difficulties
 On the bases of this, there can be
formulated at least one theory of work
1.3. Elaborating the plan
 - setting out the manner for planned research:
experiment, direct observation, inquiry,
comparative analysis
 - estimating the period of time necessary for
the development of the research
 - identifying some intermediary stages/phases-
allow the periodical evaluation of the results and
the acomplished progress
 - estimating the necessary material and
equipement, in accordance with the
organization on intermediary stages/phases
1.4. Bibliographical
documentation
 - knowledge of the preocupations and recent
results on the themes approached
 - access to the bibliographic sources specific to
the themes, known as international scientific
authorities (high reputation magazines, recent
editions of some monographs, volumes of
works presented within some congresses, sites
that belong to institutions with programs of
research on the subject )
1.5. The development of the research
plan
The Experiment

 - a phenomenon created in experimental

conditions which are known, by eliminating as
many outside influences as possible
 - it is created under strit observation to
emphasize the relations between phenomena
 - it requires knowing in detail the technical
methods used in order to be able to estimate
the limits and the precision degree that can be
achieved.
Fundamental rules in the organization
and development of experiments
 - the variability of one agent ( modern statistic methods allow the
testing of a larger nomber of variables at the same time)
 - the systematic elimination of various alternatives in the
interpretation of the relation cause- effect thus obtaining a limited
area upon which the research can be concentrated
 - the possibility of repetition - hard to achieve in the case of
the biological experiment
 - registering every detail
 - objectivity in the interpretation and evaluation of results
 - disregarding these fundamental rules > the stoppage of the
research
The reproduction of an
experiment
 - the results vary in the case of the
constant maintenance of known agents
 > one or more than one unknown
agents alter the results > interesting
discovery
 > technical error > examination of
the technical details is very important
The "controlled" experiment - the
basis of experimental studies
 - uses similar groups (randomly chosen, as similar as possible on
all accounts, except for the variable agent on study)
 - group "controll", "witness" - standard
 - group "test", "experimental" - subjected to a procedure which has
an effect that is expected to be known
 - selecting the groups:
 - logic, common sense
 - statistic methods to decide the criteria > distribution
 - random selection - one group = a sample from a
hypothetical population, infinetely large (special techniques to
choose a random sample and estimate the necessary size for it to
be representative)
 - the variability of the biological material - limited controll
over the subjects, mathematic techniques of correcting the
differences
A classification of
experiments
 a) the crucial experiment
 - verifies if the main hypothesis is true or not
 b) the preliminary experiment
 - economic nature
 - achieves a partial evaluation
 - subtypes:
 - the pilot experiment - provides information about the opportunity of a field experiment on
a large scale
 - the acknoledgement experiment - offers the necessary data to orientate the planning of
the main experiment
 - the selection experiment - tests a large nomber of substances to discover which of them
can be later on selected for a purpose.
 c) the simple, one- variable experiment
 - tests a single variable
 d) the complex, multi- variable experiment
 - includes more than one variable in the same experiment
 - economy of time and effort
 - offers a larger amount of information in comparison to the information received if every
variable would be treated separately.
1.6. The analysis of the
results
 - objective quantitative determinations
 - mathematical statistis methods:
 - utilizable in the examination of a hypothesis
 - limited significance, does not initiate a discovery
 - the medium value of the results offers a small
amount of information
 - more useful: the curve of the frequence
distributions, concrete numerical values with reference
to individual cases
 - the error degree tolerated in the result -
correlated with the precision imposed by the purpose of
the research
2. THE MOTIVATIONS AND THE QUALITIES OF
THE RESEARCH WORKER

 - the challenge of the unknown (personal,

intelectual)
 - ambition
 - the professional schooling (as a future
practitioner medical examiner, for the didactic
carrier, for the CV)
 - the education of the way of thinking
 - to achieve a name in the medical community
2. THE MOTIVATIONS AND THE QUALITIES OF
THE RESEARCH WORKER
 - open, curious mind, independent thought
 - logical thinking
 - objectivity
 - imagination
 - close analysis of the documentation with a certain degree of skepticism
 - solid knowledge, in order to be able to understand the existing information in the specialized
literature
 - discipline
 - tenacity, perseverance
 - ambition
 - ingenuity
 - self-evaluation, knowing one's limits
 - perceptive faculty
 - adventureous spirit
 - initiative
 - patience (whole years of waiting)
 - taking chances
 - personal sacrifices
 - power to work
3. THEORIES AND OBSERVATIONS AS
ORIGIN OF THE RESEARCH APPROACH
 3.1. The hypothesis
 - assumption, temporary explanation, stated on the basis of some facts,
connections or known laws regarding some connections between
phenomena, at the cause or the intern mechanism which produces it
 - mental technique is the most important device the researcher can use
 - every scientific theory appears at the beginning under the shape of a
hypothesis (the natural selection theory)
 - objective thinking is to be kept at all times ( attachment, modification or
elimination; avoiding the misinterpretation of the observations and the
personal interpretations in favour of the hypothesis)
 - the purposes of the hypothesis:
 - (i) to descipher the meaning of a phenomenon/ event that is
insufficiently known;
 - (ii) to lead to new observations and new experiments

- types of hypothesis: a) correct; b) incorrect; c) personal; d) taken over.
Objective thinking
a) abandoning or modifying an incorrect hypothesis
 - the facts must be interpreted objectively and not in accordance
with the hypothesis
 - the value of the visible proof (negative)
 - avoiding the auxiliary hypotheses, complicated or improbable
(saving device)
 - the difference between:
 - maintaining a hypothesis contradicted by evidence
 - maintaining a hypothesis (difficult to demontrate) against
which there is no evidence
 - the hypothesis goes beyond the technical/ data level of the
auxiliary domains (necessary for verification) existing at a certain
point
Objective thinking
b) objectivity
 - hypothesis = assumption
 - personal opinions > subordinated to the
objective evidence
 - the respect for the truth
 - not altering the results
 - the principle of the multiple hypotheses
 - the principle of the successive order of the
hypotheses
 - the value of the information that is not in
accordance with the hypothesis
Objective thinking
c) estimating an idea
 - not every idea can become a hypothesis
 - the grounds on which an idea can become a scientific
hypothesis are:
 - it has to be in accordance with the factual
material for the explanation of which it was formulated
 - verifiable on principle
 - it has to be explainatory for a sphere as large as
possible of phenomena, not only for the restricted group
on the basis of which it was initially formulated
 - the danger of the "clear" ideas
Correct/ incorrect hypothesis
( correctness)
a) Correct hypothesis
 - verified through experiment > concordant results > necessary
other experimental evidence for certitude
 - veracity - established for those particular circumstances which
prevale in the achieved experimental conditions
 - an immediate solution of the problem under study is obtained
 - the arrival to a different hypothesis > different directions > new
directions of investigation, available in as many as possible
particular cases
 - the work hypothesis ( temporary aspect, formulated on the basis
of the experimental data existing at a certain point, orientates the
development of new directions in research)
 - validity in any given conditions > theory > law
Correct/ incorrect hypothesis
( correctness)
b) Incorret hypothesis
 - can be productive > descoveries
 - verified through experiment >
nonconcordant results > renounciation?
 - the contradictory results can be brought into
unison with another auxiliary hypothesis,
playing an explanatory part
 - the main hypothesis > the new hypothesis
( synthesizes the added data)
Personal/ taken over
hypothesis (originality)
 - the motivation of confirmation is
stronger for the personal hypothesis;
 - the confirmation of a hypothesis that
was taken over > reward for the actual
author
 - the hypothesis that was taken over > by
inducing, not imposing
3.2. The observation
 - an active intelectual process, not passsive visualization
 - a device for the scientific knowledge > the methodical and
deliberate contemplation of an object or process according to a
purpose
 - very difficult, subjective ( depending on the person that observes
- the degree of the observation of details, the direction of the
observation according to personal interests)
 - very simple phenomena are difficult to notice and hard to
describe with precision
 - depending on the degree of novelty of the element ( it is possible
to see an element more than one time without mentaly registering
it), on the interest of the observer
 - the observers:
 - attentive, focused ( watching, searching)
3.2. The observation
 - calm, relaxed
 - prepared ( for the expected elements as well as for the
unforeseen ones)
 - there still appear errors that they are not aware of
 - the efficient observation = to signal a certain element, to point out
the meaning connecting it with something that was priorly known
 - the risk of making a false observation: sensorial, of reason ( the
mind has the involuntary tendency to fill out the gaps in knowledge
with information in accordance with the prior experience or
knowledge, or with some conscious expectations)
 - elements that are involved:
 - sensorial - perceptive ( visual, etc. )
 - intelectual - partially conscious, partially uncounscious
 - the field of observation: selective, without neglecting the whole
and the unexpeted elements
Types of observation
a) Spontaneous or passive observation
 - requires the establishment of facts as they happen naturally, without the
intervention of the subject > significant, if related to the memory
(theoretical, practical data) or if they trigger the formulation of a hypothesis
 - the purpose of the ovservation in the establishment of correlations
betweeen things apparently not connected
 - the accuracy and selection of information depends on:
 - the experience of the "trained" observer (details, signification)
 - the capacity to pass judgement
 - the level of training
 - the ditributive attention > the observation of exceptions
 - intelectual, speculative-contemplative attitude
 - useful: notes, drawings
 - allows the development of the hypothesis from which the observer
started on or the development of other hypotheses
Types of observation
b) Induced or active observation
 - deliberately searched for, usually on the
basis of a hypothesis
 - the experiment = provoked observation
4. INTUITION AND IMAGINATION IN
THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION
 4.1. Intuition
 - its origin is in the subconscious
 - clearing up or quick understanding of a situation
 - the moment can be dependent or independent of the pursuit of a
problem
 - not every intuitive thought is correct
 - circumstances that lead to the emergence of the intuitive thought:
 - a period of concentration on one subject
 - the will to finalize it
 - professional discussions, elaborating material in writing or
reading some articles - on different subjects
INTUITION
 - the principle of temporary detachment: a consecutive period of
pause, with the orientation of the attention to some other direction
because the messages from the subconscious may not be
received if the conscious thinking is constantly occupied or too tired
 - different influences: the interruption, competing interests,
personal problems
 - the scientific flair - instinctive - "scientific instinct", scientific sense
 - practical:
 - the choice for a productive direction in the investigation
 - the capacity to anticipate the directions of development of
the subject, using the imagination for a perspective view
 - recognizing the best solutions
 - eliminating the hypotheses that need too many
modifications
 - forming an oppinion concerning some new discoveries
4.2. Imagination
 - mental process of creation of some new ideas or
representations, on the basis of the prior perceptive and
cognitive experience
 - based on reality, essential moment of the creative
thinking
 - types: (I) reproductive( mental representation of some
objects or phenomena which are not directly perceived,
on the basis of descriptions), (ii) creative( elaborating
images and original new ideas)
 - educated, controlled by critical spirit and judgement
 - uneducated > false leads, incorrect results
4.3. Characteristics of the
way of thinking
Inventive thinking
 - the information/ unknown elements, difficulties > the stimulus >
the idea ( conscious thinking, unconscious thinking, imagination) >
reason > examining the idea >accepting it/ rejecting it
Productive thinking
 - operates with a large nomber of various combinations

Conditioned thinking
 - instinctively, the same route is fallowed every time > the risk of
the persistence of error
 - solution > a different way of approach, relaxing the thinking,
discussion
5. REASONINGS AND STRATEGIES IN SETTING OUT
THE METHODOLOGY OF WORK AND THE

EVALUATION OF THE RESULTS

 - research and actions orienting agent

 - logical thinking
 - occurs in descoveries, along with the
experimental results, unexpected
observations, intuition
5.2. Reasoning
 - verifies, interprets, develops descoveries,
building a general theoretical scheme
 - consciously/ subconsciously influenced by
feelings, prejudices, past experiences
 - medical sciences > complex phenomena =
incompletely defined premise > uncertain
argument
 - high degree of probability > argument/
speculation (upon something)
Types of reasoning
a) inductive reasoning
 - from particular cases to general principles,
from facts to theories
 - more productive > new theories
 - its value is debatable > uses a series of facts
from which more possible theories result, not all
of these theories can be true
 - it does not rely on the mecanic application of
logic, but on intuition - personal judgement has
its part
Types of reasoning
b) deductive reasoning
 - from general to particular, applying the
theory to a particular case
 - does not lead to new general
conclusions
Types of reasoning
c) reasoning by analogy
 - similarity appears mostly between the
systems of relations of things, than between
things
 - gives suggestions about clues and
hypotheses for the phenomena and events
which we can not directly perceive
 - limits: may lead to error; does not give
evidence
5.3. Strategy
 - planning the research: useful or not?
 - is best elaborated by the researcher commited to that theme
 - major descoveries are seldomly the result of the systematic
accumulation of data in accordance with some planning
 - there are no general rules
 - general strategy: following an objective, but at the same time
having the availability to notice any unexpected favourable event
 - three distinctive levels of planning:
 - (i) on short term ( the concrete way of performance;
available only for the experiment it was created for)
 - (ii) on long term ( perspective approach, on larger
coordinates)
 - (iii) planning policy > commitee (investigating problems,
approving projects, supporting researchers)
Research as teamwork
 - the part played by the leader is important, as
well as the personality of every member of the
team
 - distribution of responsabilities, without any
detailed and rigid planning of the tasks
everyone has to fulfill within the general plan of
the team, this way not only does every member
have to undestand the problems asigned to
him/her but have a general view of the theme
 - the utility of the planning, the flexibility
 - conditions that contribute to the learning of
the the research technique
5.4. Types of research
The Applied research
 - deliberate investigation of a problem of practical importance
 - it horizontally passes through many fundamental sciences
 - the objective is pre-established, the means to reach it are looked for
 - after the arrival to a solution of imediat interest, there follows an
understanding of the basic principles > the results will have larger general
applicability
 - the "transfer" method: the central idea is given by the application of a
new principle or technique, discovered in a different domain > many
discoveries have applications in other domains rather than the domains
they were discovered in > once applied, they are instruments with the help
of which other discoveries can be obtained
Types of research
The Fundamental research
 - the objective is the scientific knowledge
per se
 - it begins with un interesting,
unexpected lead, without trying to obtain
results having a practical value
 - first there is the discovery, afterwards a
utility for the discovery is searched for
Types of research
The Exploration research
 - approaches new theories
 - is independant and has its risks
 - may lead to major discoveries or to
nothing
Types of research
The Progress research
 - approaches a field already won over,
consolidates the progress made, uses in
practice the results obtained through the
exploration research
Types of research
The Frontier research
 - implies a gathering of more than
onesciences, or branches of one science
 - uses and binds together knowledge
6. SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF THE
DOCUMENTATION IN THE RESEARCH
ACTIVITY
 - selecting the bibliographical material in
accordance with the type of research
 - the systematization of all the sources
containing the data and existing information
 - the synthesizing and analysis of the resulted
material from the documantation
 - the formulation, as precise as possible, of the
research theme and the connections that must
be followed with the results that are reported in
literature