EECS 3400 Electronics I

Dr. Kang
1
 Chapter 1
Introduction to Electronics
 History of electronics.
 Impact of integrated circuit

technologies.
 Classification of electronic signals.
 Review circuit notation and theory.
 Tolerance impacts and analysis.

 Problem solving approach

2
History: Start of the Modern
Electronics Era

Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at  The first germanium bipolar transistor.  
Bell Labs ­ Brattain and Bardeen  Roughly 50 years later, electronics 
invented the bipolar transistor in 1947. account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of 
the world GDP.

The advent of transistor marked the beginning of

the modern-day electronics. 3
History: Electronics
Milestones
1874 Braun invented the solid-state rectifier.
1906 DeForest invented triode vacuum tube.
1907-1927 First radio circuits developed from diodes and triodes.
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent filed.
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Laboratories invented bipolar
transistors.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor production at Texas Instruments.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley received Nobel prize.
1958 Integrated circuit developed by Kilby and Noyce
1961 First commercial IC from Fairchild Semiconductor
1963 IEEE formed from merger of IRE and AIEE
1968 First commercial IC OpAmp
1970 One transistor DRAM cell invented by Dennard at IBM.
1971 4004 Intel microprocessor introduced.
1978 First commercial 1-Kilobit memory.
1974 8080 microprocessor introduced.
1984 Megabit memory chip introduced.
2000 Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer share Nobel prize
4
 1930s – 1940s
Electron vacuum tubes

1950s
Tubes to transistors

1960s
Decade of integration

1970s
New field of opto-electronics

1980s
Focus on Manufacturings

1990s
Towards a global society

2000s
The 3rd millennium 5
 History: Evolution of Electronic
Devices

Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors

SSI and MSI VLSI

Integrated Surface-Mount
Circuits Circuits

6
Impact: Microelectronics
Proliferation
 The integrated circuit was invented in 1958.
 World transistor production has more than
doubled every year for the past twenty
years.
 Every year, more transistors are produced
than in all previous years combined.
 Approximately 109 transistors were
produced in a recent year.
 Roughly 50 transistors for every ant in the
world .

*Source: Gordon Moore’s Plenary address at the

2003 International Solid State Circuits Conference.7
Rapid Increase in Density per processor
chip
How do you
read a semi-
log graph?

What is the
density of
P4?

What is the
density of a
dual core
chip?

Microprocessor complexity versus time. 8
Device Feature
Size

 Minimum feature
size is the
minimum line
width that can be
defined on the
surface of the
integrated circuit.

 Feature size
reduction is
enabled by process
innovations.

 Smaller features
lead to more
transistors per unit
area and therefore
higher density.

9
 • Devices design to handle
Signal Types signals: analog, digital, and
mixed.

 Analog signals take

on continuous values
- typically current or
voltage.

 Digital signals appear

at discrete levels.
Usually we use binary
signals which utilize
only two levels.

10
 Analog and Digital Signals

 Analog signals are  After sampling, the

continuous in time continuous analog
such as voltage or signal becomes a set
current. (Charge can of discrete values,
also be used as a separated by fixed
signal conveyor.) time intervals.

11
Digital-to-Analog (D/A) Conversion

VFS   =  Full ­ Scale Voltage

 For an n-bit D/A converter, the output voltage is
expressed as:
VO = (b1 2 −1 + b2 2 −2 + ... + bn 2 − n )VFS
 The MSB and LSB are defined as:
−1 −n
VMSB = 2 VFS , VLSB = 2 VFS
12
 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion

 Analog input voltage vx is converted to the nearest n-bit

number.
 For a four bit converter, 0 -> vx input yields a 0000 ->
1111 digital output.
 Output is approximation of input due to the limited
n
(b1 2 1 +b2 2 2 +
resolution of the n-bit −
output.− Error is expressed as:
Vε=v x − ...+ bn 2− )VFS
13
A/D Converter Transfer Characteristic

1 2 n
Vε=v x −(b1 2− +b2 2− +...+bn 2− )VFS
14
Notational
Conventions
• Total signal = DC bias + time varying
signal
v T = V DC + v sig
iT = I DC + i sig

Resistance and conductance - R and G with

same subscripts will denote reciprocal
quantities. Most convenient form will be
used within expressions.
1 1
G x =     and      g π =
Rx rπ

15
 Problem-Solving Approach
 Make a clear problem statement.
 List known information and given data.
 Define the unknowns required to solve the
problem.
 List assumptions.
 Develop an approach to the solution.
 Perform the analysis based on the approach.
 Check the results.
 Has the problem been solved? Have all the
unknowns been found?
 Is the math correct?
 Evaluate the solution.
 Do the results satisfy reasonableness constraints?
 Are the values realizable?
 Use computer-aided analysis to verify hand
analysis 16
 What are Reasonable Numbers?
 If the power supply is +-10 V, a calculated DC bias
value of 15 V (not within the range of the power
supply voltages) is unreasonable.
 Generally, our bias current levels will be between 1
uA and a few hundred milliamps.
 A calculated bias current of 3.2 amps is probably
unreasonable and should be reexamined.
 Peak-to-peak ac voltages should be within the power
supply voltage range.
 A calculated component value that is unrealistic
should be rechecked. For example, a resistance
equal to 0.013 ohms.
 Given the inherent variations in most electronic
components, three significant digits are adequate
for representation of results. Three significant digits
are used throughout the text.
17
Circuit Theory Review: Voltage
Division
R1
v1 =v s
R1 +R2
R2
v 2 =v s
R1 +R2
8 kΩ
v1 =10 V =8.00 V
8 kΩ +2 kΩ
2 kΩ
v 2 =10 V =2.00 V
8 kΩ +2 kΩ
Note: Voltage division only applies when both resistors
are carrying the same current.
18
Circuit Theory Review: Current
Division
R2
i1 =i s
R1 +R2
R1
i 2 =i s
R1 +R2

3 kΩ
i1 = 5 mA = 3.00 mA
2 kΩ + 3 kΩ
2 kΩ
i2 = 5 mA = 2.00 mA
2 kΩ + 3 kΩ
Note: Current division only applies when the same
voltage appears across both resistors.
19
Circuit Theory Review: Thevenin and
Norton Equivalent Circuits

A complex Thévenin Norton

network equivalent equivalent
connected to RL. network network
connected to RL. connected to RL

Complex network is replaced by Thevenin and

Norton Equivalence. 20
More Details on Thevenin Equivalent
L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th e ir c o n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART A
i a L IN E A R C IR C U IT
+ M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
vO d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th eir co n tro llin g
_ b va ria b les
PART B

1. Because of the linearity, for any Part B the relationship between

Vo and the current i has to be of the form v o = m i + n
2. If part B is an open circuit then i = 0 and n = v oc
3. If Part B is a short circuit then Vo is zero. In this case
v oc
0 = m i sc + v oc →m=− = − RTH
i sc

4. Thus v o = − R TH i + v O C How do we interpret this?

21
…continued

At the terminal-pair (a, b), B sees A as: vO = − RTH i + vOC

R TH
a a
i +
vOC +
_ vO PART B
_
Part A Equiv. b b

The open-circuit voltage VO C is called the

Thevenin Equivalent Voltage. The resistance
RTH is the Thevenin Equivalent resistance.
22
More Details on Norton Equivalent
vO C
v O = − RTH i + v O C ⇒ if v o = 0, then = i SC
RTH
At the terminal-pair (a, b), B sees A as:

i a a
+
RTH vO PART B
i SC
−
Part A Equiv. b b

The short-circuit current ISC is the Norton Equivalent

current IN . The resistance RTH is the same in both
23
Thevenin and Norton Equivalent circuits.
Example: Find Thevenin and Norton
Equivalent Circuits

Thevenin Norton
Equiv. Equiv. 24
Thevenin: Find Thevenin Equivalent
Voltage
Problem: Find the Thevenin
equivalent voltage at the
output.
Solution:
 Known Information and

Given Data: Circuit topology

and values in figure.
 Unknowns: Thevenin

equivalent voltage vTH.

 Approach: Voltage source vTH
is defined as the output
voltage with no load.
 Assumptions: None.
 Analysis: Next slide…

25
 KCL at the output node:
vo − vs vo
βi1 = + = G1 ( vo − vs ) + GS vo
R1 RS
Constraint equation:
i1 = G1 ( v s − v o )

Combining the two equations yield: G1(
β 1)
+ vs =[
G1(
β 1)
+ +GS ]
vo

vo =
G1 ( β + 1)
vs ×
R1 RS
=
( β + 1) RS
vs
G1 ( β + 1) + GS R1 RS ( β + 1) RS + R1
(50 + 1)1kΩ
= vs = 0.718vs
(50 + 1)1kΩ + 20kΩ
v TH =0.718v s
26
Thevenin: Find Thevenin Equiv.
Resistance
Problem: Find the Thevenin
equivalent resistance.
Solution:
 Known Information

and Given Data: Circuit

topology and values in
figure.
 Unknowns: Thevenin

equivalent resistance RTH.

 Approach: Add test
voltage vx to the circuit.
Circuit draws current ix
from vx. RTH is the ratio
vx/ix.
 Assumption: None
 Analysis: Next slide… 27
Applying KCL to upper node:
ix = −i1 − βi1 + GS v x = G1v x + βG1v x + GS v x
= [ G1 ( β + 1) + GS ] v x
Find Thevenin resistance:

vx 1 R1
Rth = = = RS //
ix G1 ( β + 1) + GS β +1
20kΩ
Rth = 1kΩ // = 1kΩ // 392Ω = 282Ω
50 + 1
28
Norton: Find the Norton Equivalent
Circuit
Problem: Find the Norton
equivalent circuit.
Solution:
 Known Information

and Given Data: Circuit

topology and values in
figure.
A short circuit has been applied   Unknowns: Norton

across the output.  The Norton current  equivalent short circuit

is the current flowing through the  current iN.
short circuit at the output.  Approach: Evaluate
current through output
short circuit.
 Assumptions: None.
 Analysis: Next slide…
29
Short circuit at the output causes zero current to flow through RS.

Applying KCL at upper node:
vs ( β + 1)
iN = i1 + βi1 = G1vs + βG1vs = G1 ( β + 1) vs =
R1
50 + 1 vs
iN = vs = = (2.55 mS)vs
20 kΩ 392 Ω

30
Final Thevenin and Norton Circuits

Check of Results: Note that vTH=iNRth and this can be used to check the 
calculations:  iNRth=(2.55 mS)vs(282 Ω) = 0.719vs, accurate within 
round­off error.

While the two circuits are identical in terms of voltages and currents at 
the output terminals, there is one difference between the two circuits.  
With no load connected, the Norton circuit still dissipates power!
31
 Frequency Spectrum of Electronic
Signals
 Nonrepetitive signals have continuous spectra often
occupying a broad range of frequencies.

 Periodic signals can be represented by Fourier

series which is composed of a set of sinusoidal
signals with distinct amplitude, frequency, and
phase. ∞
x (t ) = a 0 + ∑ a n co s (n ω 0 t ) + bn si n (n ω o t )
n =1
∞
= a 0 + ∑ c n cos (n ω 0 t + θ n ) where
n =1
2 2
c n = a n + bn and θ n = ta n −1 (− bn / a n )

 Frequency spectrum of the signal reveals the

amplitude and phase components of the signal versus
frequency. 32
Frequencies of Some Common Signals

 Audible sounds 20 Hz - 20 KHz

 Baseband TV 0 - 4.5
MHz
 FM Radio 88 - 108
MHz
 Television (Channels 2-6) 54 - 88
MHz
 Television (Channels 7-13)174 - 216
MHz
 Maritime and Govt. Comm.216 - 450
33
MHz
Fourier Series
 A square wave is represented by the following
Fourier series:
2VO  1 1 
v(t) =VDC + sin ω0 t + sin 3ω0 t + sin 5ω0t +...
π 3 5 

ω0=2π/T (rad/s) is the fundamental radian frequency and f0=1/T (Hz) is the 
fundamental frequency of the signal.  2f0, 3f0, 4f0 and called the second, 
third, and fourth harmonic frequencies.
34
Amplifier Basics

 Analog signals are typically manipulated with

linear amplifiers.
 Although signals may be comprised of several
different components, linearity permits us to
use the superposition principle.
 Superposition allows us to calculate the effect
of each of the different components of a signal
individually and then add the individual
contributions to the output.

35
Amplifier Linearity
Given an input sinusoid: vs =Vs sin(ω φ
st +)

For a linear amplifier, the output is at 
the same frequency, but different  Vo sin(ω
vo = φ
st ++θ
)
amplitude and phase.

In phasor notation: φ
v s =Vs∠ vo = (φ
Vo∠ +θ
)

Amplifier gain is: v V∠ (φ+θ) Vo
A= o = o = ∠ θ
vs Vs∠φ Vs

36
Amplifier Input/Output Response

vs = sin2000πt V

Av = ­5 

Note:  negative 
gain is equivalent 
to 180 degress of 
phase shift.

37
Ideal Operational
Amplifier
 Ideal op amp is a special case of ideal
differential amplifier with infinite gain A,
infinite Rid and zero Ro . If R = 0 and A → ∞ , then
0
vo
vi d = ≈0
A
If Ri d is ∞, then
i + = i −= 0

These give us two important assumptions in ideal op amp circuits:

1. No voltage difference between the input terminals: v+ = v-
2. No current ever flows into either input terminals: i + = i - = 0.
In real op amp, there are small leakage current (in femtoamps)
and small voltage difference. But not enough to have effects. 38
Ideal Op Amp as an Inverting Amplifier
Since i- = 0, we have
v out = v in − ( R1 + R f )i

Since v- = v+ = 0, we have for

input loop:
v in
− v in + R1 i + 0 + 0 = 0 ⇒ i =
R1
Rf
Thus v out = − v in
• Positive input is grounded. But R1
negative input is virtually grounded.
• Resistor R1 connected between
inverting input and signal source.
• Resistor Rf connected between
inverting input and amplifier output
node.
39
Noninverting Amplifier
• Input signal is applied to the non-
inverting input terminal. Output signal is
fed back to the negative input terminal.
v a v a − v out
At node a : + +0=0
R1 Rf
But v a = v b = v in
 Rf 
Thus : v out = 1 + v in
 R1 

40
 Amplifier Frequency Response

Amplifiers can be designed to selectively amplify specific 
ranges of frequencies.  Such an amplifier is known as a 
filter.  Several filter types are shown below:

Low­Pass High­Pass BandPass Band­Reject All­Pass

41
Circuit Element Variations

 All electronic components have manufacturing tolerances.

 Resistors can be purchased with ± 10%, ± 5%, and

± 1% tolerance. (IC resistors are often ± 10%.)

 Capacitors can have asymmetrical tolerances such as

+20%/-50%.
 Power supply voltages typically vary from 1% to 10%.

 Device parameters will also vary with temperature and

age.
 Circuits must be designed to accommodate these
variations.
 We will use worst-case and Monte Carlo (statistical)
analysis to examine the effects of component parameter
variations.

42
Circuit Analysis with Tolerances
 Worst-case analysis
 Parameters are manipulated to produce the

worst-case min and max values of desired

quantities.
 This can lead to overdesign since the worst-

case combination of parameters is rare.

 It may be less expensive to discard a rare

failure than to design for 100% yield.

 Monte-Carlo analysis
 Parameters are randomly varied to generate a

set of statistics for desired outputs.

 The design can be optimized so that failures

due to parameter variation are less frequent

than failures due to other mechanisms.
 In this way, the design difficulty is better

managed than a worst-case approach.

43
 Worst Case Analysis Example

Problem: Find the nominal

and worst-case values for
output voltage and source
current.

Solution:
 Known Information and Given Data: Circuit topology and values
in figure.
 Unknowns: Vonom, Vomin , Vomax, ISnom, ISmin, ISmax .
 Approach: Find nominal values and then select R1, R2, and Vs
values to generate extreme cases of the unknowns.
 Assumptions: None.
 Analysis: Next slides…

44
 R1nom 18kΩ
Vo
nom
=V
S
nom
= 15V = 5V
R1nom + R2nom 18kΩ + 36kΩ

VSnom 15V
I Snom = nom nom
= =278µA
R1 +R2 18kΩ+ 36kΩ

R1 Vs
Rewrite Vo to determine worst­case values: Vo = Vs =
R1 + R2 1 + R2 R1
15V (1.1) 15V (0.95)
Vomax = = 5.87V Vomin = =4.20V
36 K (0.95) 36K (1.05)
1+ 1+
18K (1.05) 18K (0.95)

Worst­case source currents:
VSmax 15V (1.1)
I Smax = min min
= =322µ
A
R1 +R2 18kΩ(0.95) +36kΩ (0.95)
VSmin 15V (0.9)
I Smin = max max
= =238µ
A
R1 +R2 18kΩ(1.05) +36kΩ (1.05)
45
Monte Carlo Analysis

 Parameters are varied randomly and output

statistics are gathered.
 We use programs like MATLAB, Mathcad, or a
spreadsheet to complete a statistically
significant set of calculations.
 For example, with Excel, a resistor with 5%
tolerance can be expressed as:
R= 2ε
Rnom (1 +(RAND() −
0.5))
The RAND() functions returns
random numbers uniformly
distributed between 0 and 1.

46
Monte Carlo Analysis Example
Problem: Perform a Monte
Carlo analysis and find the
mean, standard deviation,
min, and max for Vo, Is,
and power delivered from
the source.
Solution:
 Known Information and
Given Data: Circuit
topology and values in
figure.
 Unknowns: The mean, Monte Carlo parameter definitions:
standard deviation, min,
and max for Vo, Is, and Ps. Vs =15(1 +0.2(RAND() −0.5))
 Approach: Use a
spreadsheet to evaluate R1 =18, 000(1+0.1(RAND() −0.5))
the circuit equations with R2 =36,000(1 +0.1(RAND() −0.5))
random parameters.
 Assumptions: None.
 Analysis: Next slides…
47
 Monte Carlo Analysis Example (cont.)
Monte Carlo parameter
definitions:
VS =15(1+0.2(RAND() −0.5))
R1 =18,000(1+0.1(RAND() −0.5))
R2 =36,000(1+0.1(RAND() −0.5))

Circuit equations based on Monte Carlo

parameters:
VO =VS
R1 VS
R1 +R2
IS = PS =VS IS
R1 +R2
Results:
Avg Nom. Stdev Max WC­max Min WC­Min
Vo (V) 4.96 5.00 0.30 5.70 5.87 4.37 4.20
Is (mA) 0.276 0.278 0.0173 0.310  0.322 0.242 0.238
P (mW) 4.12 4.17 0.490 5.04 ­­ 3.29 ­­

48
Monte Carlo Analysis Example (cont.)

Histogram of output voltage from 1000 case Monte Carlo

simulation. 49
Temperature Coefficients
 Most circuit parameters are temperature sensitive.
P=Pnom(1+α1∆T+ α2∆T2) where ∆T=T-Tnom
Pnom is defined at Tnom

 Most versions of SPICE allow for the specification of

TNOM, T, TC1(α1), TC2(α2).

 SPICE temperature model for resistor:

R(T)=R(TNOM)*[1+TC1*(T-TNOM)+TC2*(T-TNOM)2]

 Many other components have similar models.

50
Chapter 1 Summary
• Chapter 1 provides a historical perspective on the field of
electronics beginning with vacuum tubes and advancing to
giga-scale integration and its impact on the global economy.

• Chapter 1 also provides a classification of electronic

signals and a review of some important tools from network
analysis, including a review of the ideal operational
amplifier.

• Because developing a good problem-solving methodology

is of such import to an engineer’s career, the comprehensive
Structured Problem Solving Approach has been added to
help the students develop their problem solving skills. The
structured approach is discussed in detail in the first chapter
and used in all the subsequent examples in the text.

• Component tolerances and variations play an extremely

important role in practical circuit design, and Chapter 1
closes with introductions to tolerances, temperature
coefficients, worst-case design, and Monte Carlo analysis. 51