Session XXII

Learning

LEARNING
Any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience is learning.

Importance of learning
Though people are already equipped with some skills (like engineers are hired for their specialised technical skills) before they enter an organisation, yet they need to learn other skills (such as people skills) they join. Organisations conduct formal training programs to help employees assimilate the desired skills, work culture, values and norms of the organisation.

Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian behaviourist, had conducted an experiment to teach dogs to salivate in response to the ringing of bell. Initially, the dogs salivated when they saw food but did not react to the ringing of the bell. After repeated ringing of the bell before getting the food, the dog began to salivate as soon as the bell rang. Thus the dog learned to associate neutral stimulus (bell) with conditioned stimulus (food). The theory of classical conditioning emerged from these experiments.

Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning theory has been associated with the work of B.F.Skinner. Skinner designed an apparatus called the operant chamber or the skinner box. To understand the learned behaviour in animals.

The skinner box has a lever, which on pressing, drops a pellet of food. A hungry rat was placed in the skinner box. It eventually pressed the lever by accident and received a pellet of food. The rat soon learned to associate pressing of the lever with the reward of food. This reward acted as a reinforcing factor. This form of learning, which is based on trial and error, is called operant conditioning.

Social learning thoery

Albert Bandura gave two steps describing the process of learning through a model. 1. Through observation a person acquires a mental picture of an act carried out by someone and its consequences. 2. Then the person enacts the acquired image.

If the consequences turnout to be positive, the behaviour is repeated, otherwise , it is discontinued.

Instrumental learning
Some psychologists are of the view that learning results from behavioural consequences. This type of learning is called instrumental learning. If an individual observes that responding in a particular way to a particular stimulus is rewarding, he will tend to behave similarly in the future as well.

Instrumental (or operant) learning is common in organisations. For example, if working overtime during a busy season results in a significant increment in salary (positive reinforcer) in the appraisal that follows, the worker is likely to repeat this in the next year as well.

Behaviour modification
Learning through reinforcement: Behaviour modification a theory that explains learning in terms of the antecedents and consequences of behaviour. This argues that we learn from previous interactions with the environment to alter our behaviour in such a way that we maximise positive consequences and minimise the adverse consequences.

Behaviour modification emphasizes voluntary behaviour researchers call them operant behaviours because they operate on the environment. For example, you put a certain amount of money in a soft drink (MILK) machine and press a certain button so that the machine will provide a particular can of Pop (or Milk). You learned from past experiences how to cause the environment (the machine) to deliver that brand of the drink.

Flowchart of steps in the OB Mod process

Identify

Measure

Analyse

Evaluate

Intervene

Session XXIII

Law of effect
Behaviour modification is based on law of effect. It is a principle stating that the likelihood that an operant behaviour will be repeated depends on its consequences.

A-B-Cs of Behaviour Modification

A-Antecedents B-Behaviour C-Consequences.

Steps
Antecedents
What happens before the behaviour

Behaviour
What the person says or does

Consequences
What happens after the behaviour

Example
Co-workers thank operator for stopping the machine

Warning light flashes on operators console

Operator switches off the machines power source

New attendance bonus system is announced

Employee attends work at designated times

Employee receives attendance bonus

Contingencies of reinforcement
Behaviour modification identifies four types of consequences, collectively known as the contingencies of reinforcement, that strengths , maintains, or weaken behaviour. They are positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punitive reinforcement Extinction

Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous a schedule that reinforces behaviour every time it occurs. Fixed interval a schedule that reinforces behaviour after it has occurred a fixed period of time.

Variable interval- a schedule that reinforces behaviour after it has occurred for a variable period of time around some average. Fixed ratio- a schedule that reinforces bahaviour after it has occurred a fixed number of times.

STIMULUS PRESENTED

POSITIVE PUNISHMENT REINFORCEMENT Ex. Suspension of Ex. Good the employee performance rating

STIMULUS REMOVED OR WITH HELD

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT Ex. Calling off strike and resuming work to avoid being dismissed

PUNISHMENT Ex. No access to recreation facilities for a week.

A case study
A consulting firm has recommended that ABC Mining Company should rely on action learning to prepare its technical staff for leadership positions in the organisation. The executives complain that action learning takes too long, where as they could have consultant provide several classroom sessions in less tome and with less expense. Discuss the merits of their arguments against action learning.