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Short-term cycles
Global cycles
Biogeochemical cycles are the major way that elements are moved on Earths surface Driven by solar input (primary production) Elements cycle between reservoirs that operate on different time scales Cycles have positive and negative feedbacks and subject to perturbations Interaction with physical processes through tectonic/rock cycles Oceans and atmosphere are important conduits transporting matter and energy
In general
Atmosphere exchanges material with biota and oceans rapidly Cycles that include an atmospheric component tend to have more rapid recycling (N and C) Cycles without an atmospheric component can be slower (immobile) because tied to geological cycles (P)
Atmosphere
Major conduit for transport between oceans and land
Major role in controlling climate (heat transport)
Atmosphere structure
0oC Mesosphere
Pressure decreases with altitude 1 atmosphere of pressure at Earths surface at sea level.
30 mi Stratopause
20 m
10 m Tropopause Troposphere
20oC
Troposphere
Well-mixed Limited exchange with overlying stratosphere Heated by long-wave radiation (heat) reradiated from Earths surface
Temperature decreases with altitude in troposphere
Atmosphere
N2 fairly inert; long residence time (20 my) O2 accumulated over time; complex controls; shorter residence time (~10,000 years) CO2 trace constituent; complex controls; short residence time (~3 years)
- Affected by processes with cycles at various timescales (from rock to seasonal) - Long-term variations - Greenhouse
Atmosphere
Trace constituents reduced gases
Microbially produced at present and removed in rain/oxidation Greenhouse gases
Ozone stratosphere
Problematic in troposphere
Water vapor
Varies tremendously Important in distributing heat Greenhouse gas
Air movement
Water vapor rises, expands and cools Condenses into clouds or precipitation (cooler air cant hold as much water) Atmosphere can lose water by precipitation As air loses water vapor it becomes more dense and air will then fall, compress and heat
Atmospheric circulation
Powered by sunlight uneven solar heating About 51% of incoming energy is absorbed by Earths land and water Energy absorption varies depending on the angle of approach, the sea state and the presence of ice or other covering (e.g., foam)
Heat budget
Energy imbalance more energy comes in at the equator than at the poles 51% of the short-wave radiation (light) striking land is converted to longer-wave radiation (heat) and transferred into the atmosphere by conduction, radiation and evaporation. Eventually, atmosphere, land and ocean radiate heat back to space as long-wave radiation (heat) Input and outflow of heat comprise the earths heat budget We assume thermal equilibrium (Earth is not getting warmer or cooler) or the overall heat budget of the earth is balanced
Atmospheric circulation
Uneven solar heating of earth
Atm and oceans move heat poleward Air moves from high pressure to low pressure Poleward movement of warm air (less dense) Equatorward movement of cold air (more dense)
Movement of heat
Sensible heat
Transported by a body that has higher temperature than its surroundings (conduction and/or convection)
Latent heat
Phase changes of water Evaporation takes up heat and condensation releases heat
Poles are cooler because they receive lower intensity solar radiation do to angle of incident radiation.
Solar radiation
Second reason the poles are cooler is the tilt of the earth on its axis
Variation in daylength Even when poles have long daylength, the incident angle is long.
23.5o N
Fig. 4-1
Fig. 4-2
Circulation
Atmospheric and oceanic circulation are governed by the redistribution of this energy Water moves heat between tropics to poles Ocean currents and water vapor move heat. Higher latent heat of vaporization means vapor transfers more heat per unit mass than liquid water.
Atmospheric circulation
Warm air rises and cool air sinks Warm air expands and rises Expansion causes cooling and contraction causing increasing density and sinking Air will rise where its warmer and sink where its cooler
Convection
Fig. 13.11
Fig. 4-25
Air movement
Air is warmed at equator so rises As it rises, it dumps its moisture because its expanded and cooled Air moves south to replace air thats risen Creates zone of low pressure (sinking air creates high pressure and rising air creates low pressure.
Fig. 4-3
Atmospheric circulation
But, this is NOT what happens Atmospheric circulation is governed not only by uneven solar heating but, The Earths rotation Eastward (CCW) rotation of the Earth on its axis deflects moving air or water (or any object with mass). CORIOLIS effect (1835)
Coriolis Effect
Rotation of the Earth CCW Relative speeds of sphere at different latitudes Caused by an observers moving frame of reference on a spinning Earth Curve is slightly to the right of initial path in the northern hemisphere Curve is slightly to the left of initial path in the southern hemisphere
Relative speeds of objects at different radii moving at the same angular speed
Airplane Coriolis
Fig. 4-11
Fig. 4-7
Hadley Cell Hadley Cell
Fig. 4-6
Fig. 4-18
Deserts offset from convergence zones where there is high precipitation. Deserts at divergence zones.
Equatorial region
Lots of rain as humid air rises and loses moisture (rain forests) Doldrums Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) winds converge
The oceans thermostatic effect reduces irregularities due to surface conditions at different longitudes
Distributions of land masses -Differential heating and cooling -Land heats up and cools more rapidly
Seasonality
Seasonality important Shifts in polar front and the ITCZ meteorological equator
West-East variations
Air over chilled continents becomes cold and dense in the winter Air sinks creating high pressure over continents Air over relatively warmer waters rises (possibly with water vapor) creating low pressure zones over water Air flows from high pressure to low pressure modifying air flow within cells Reverse situation in summer Effects pronounced in N hemisphere (mid-latitudes) where there is about the same amount of land & water
Winds over the Pacific on two days in Sept 1996 Stronger winds in redorange Notes: Deviates from 6-cell model
Over long term 6-cell model is pretty good for describing average flow
Major surface wind and pressure systems of the world and their weather These wind patterns move 2/3 of heat from tropics to poles.
Monsoons
Pattern of wind circulation that changes with the season Generally wet summers and dry winters Linked to different heat capacities of land and water and to N-S movement of the ITCZ
Wet season
In the spring, land heats (faster than water) Warm air over land rises creating low pressure Cool air flows from ocean to land This humid air heats and rises (rains form)
Dry Season
Land cools (faster than ocean) Air cools and sinks over land creating high pressure Dry surface wind moves seaward Warms and rises over water (with or without evaporation and rain over water)
Monsoons
Most intense over Asia where you have a huge land mass in the N and a huge ocean to the S Monsoon over India causes wet season (summer) from April October (up to 10 meters 425 inches of rain per year) Smaller monsoon in N America (Gulf of Mexico and SE)
Dry season
Wet season
ITCZ ITCZ
Fig. 4-17