Chapter 6.

1
Choosing appropriate technologies

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Hierarchy of preferred waste management options

Source: David C Wilson 1993, 1997, 2001

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Waste avoidance and minimisation

Top of the waste hierarchy Reduces pressure on treatment and disposal facilities Reduces costs Saves resources

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Re-use and recycling options

Re-use and recycling: divert wastes from disposal reduce resource consumption reduce costs reduce environmental impacts from raw material acquisition Re-use - no treatment except for any necessary cleaning Recycling - materials may first require cleaning or separation

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Principles of treatment
Volume reduction Reduce the volume of waste with hazardous components by concentration Destruction Convert hazardous to non-hazardous substances Containment Isolate hazardous materials

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Treatment options 1
Physical Chemical Physical and chemical Biological

All treatments are aimed at modifying physical and chemical properties of the hazardous component Most treatments leave residues for disposal

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Treatment options 2
Thermal Stabilisation and solidification Combined treatment methods
All treatments are aimed at modifying physical and chemical properties of the hazardous component Most treatments leave residues for disposal
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Disposal options
Landfill and land disposal may include: Co-disposal Disposal in engineered hazardous waste sites or cells within sites

Other options: Soil biodegradation Underground injection Deep mines

Unlikely to be suitable for developing economies

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Technology selection
At on-site level, to deal with a particular waste

stream
At national level, to decide what off-site facilities are needed to deal with residues from

individual premises
Always need to know quantities and types of waste There will always be a need for landfill

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Technology criteria for on-site treatment of wastes

Can it deal with amount and type of waste?
Will it enable compliance with regulations? What are the likely costs? What are the implications for operation? Are there any workplace, environmental or social concerns?

What residues will be generated that have to be removed off-site?

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Selection criteria for delivering national strategy

The nature and quantity of waste

The desired characteristics of outputs from treatment

The role of a centralised landfill for stabilised wastes from individual generators The technical adequacy of treatment alternatives Economic and financial considerations

Workplace, environmental and social considerations

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Selection criteria for particular waste stream

Can it deal with amount and type of waste? Will it enable compliance with regulations? What are the likely costs and possible revenues? Are there any environmental or social concerns?

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Physical treatment
Manual separation - removes selected wastes by visual inspection Sieving and screening - removes coarse material Sedimentation - settles solids to separate liquid Decanting - removes water content Centrifuging - removes water content Filtration Solvent extraction Adsorption Soil washing - extracts soluble contaminants Sludge drying Autoclaving - sterilises waste by heat & pressure Microwave irradiation - sterilisation
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Physical treatment - example of application

Filtration - Belt filter

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Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

Chemical treatment
Chemical reduction and oxidation - uses oxidising and reducing agents to transform constituents Neutralisation - adjusts pH to neutral Precipitation - separates hazardous constituents from solution Dechlorination - removes chlorine from organic materials Hydrolysis - breaks down constituents by adding water Electrolysis - breaks down chemical compounds with electrical charge
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Chemical treatment example of application

Neutralisation

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Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

Physico-chemical treatment
Solvent extraction - uses immiscible solvent to dissolve organic material in aqueous solution Flocculation & coagulation - aggregates fine constituents Stripping / Desorption - separates volatile components from liquid by passing through gas stream Membrane-separation - uses semi-permeable memebrane Leaching - removes soluble components from solid material Scrubbing - removes constituents from gas or liquid stream by contact with washing liquid/slurry or powder UV Irradiation / Ozonolysis - breaks down hazardous constituents by ozone/energy Ion exchange - exchange with dissolved ionic species through contact with resin
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Physico-chemical treatment example of application

Precipitation Flocculation Sedimentation

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Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

Biological treatment
Biodegradation of organic into simple inorganic species with suitable microbes

Activated sludge treatment - biodegrades organic species with bio-active sludge in aqueous phase Rotating biological contactor - breaks down aqueous organic species in contact with bacterial rich filter Aerated lagoons and stabilisation ponds - break down organic wastes in shallow pools with oxygen Anaerobic digestion - degrades organic waste in absence of oxygen Land application - biodegrades organic matter through action with soil microbes
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Biological treatment - example of application

Activated Sludge treatment

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Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

Stabilisation and Solidification

Converts waste into insoluble rock-like materials Stabilisation - treats waste to minimise migration Solidification - uses cement-based process Encapsulation - encloses waste within casing or layer of inert substance Recommended for inorganic hazardous wastes A pretreatment step prior to landfill disposal

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Stabilisation and solidification example of application

Drums of solidified waste

Source: David C Wilson TRP Chapter 6.1 22

Thermal treatment
Thermal treatment of waste: Incineration allows energy recovery, materials recycling Pyrolysis Gasification allow recovery of useful materials

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Co-combustion in cement kilns

Existing lime or cement kilns can be adapted to burn hazardous wastes Suitable for interim and long term use

Avoids need for new facility

Saves on fuel costs in cement making

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Thermal treatment - example of application

Rotary kiln incinerator

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Source: Guyer, Howard H Industrial processes and waste stream management, Wiley

Simple options 1
Solar evaporation ponds can be used for sludge dewatering or drying
Very small quantities of difficult wastes can be encapsulated in cement, prior to landfill Existing industrial boilers can be adapted to burn wastes

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Simple options 2
Not suitable for long term or widespread use: Evaporation pits can be used for very small quantities of solvents, where recovery or incineration is not practicable Engineered open-pit incinerators can be used to burn small quantities of hazardous wastes in isolated areas Oily sludges can be stabilised by mixing with sand or similar material, and weathering
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Outdated technologies?
Several technologies were used in Western countries in the past but have now been discontinued or severely limited. These include: Long term storage Ocean dumping Ocean incineration by special vessels Deep well injection Disposal in salt mines Land deposit of toxic organic wastes Solvent evaporation Co-disposal of non-stabilised hazardous wastes
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Treatment & disposal methods for certain waste types

Recovery Effluents, washwaters Acids, alkalis Heavy metals Residues Toxic inorganics Reactive wastes Non-toxic inorganics Solvents, oils Resins, paints, organic sludge Organic chemicals Petsicides PCBs, chlorinated hydrocarbons Putrescible, biodegradable wastes x x x x x x x x
x x

Incin

Treatment x

Immob/ation

Landfill

x x x x x x x x Residues

x x

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Technology assessment
How to evaluate overall aspects of technology choice?

Environmental Technology Assessment (EnTA) can examine the broader implications of a technology option. Process is similar to LCA but applied to technologies rather than products Environmental Impact Assessment evaluates the location and societal implication of a technology or development project Risk Assessment examines the hazards and risk reduction measures from a technology or process
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Key considerations
Waste reduction and avoidance by generators should always be a priority Role of on-site vs off-site technologies Need to consider residues from treatment processes and their disposal Transitional technologies may be used until final high-quality installations are available

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Key questions when choosing technologies

Who can undertake technology assessment? Which wastes are not acceptable? Transport - how are the wastes received? How to monitor the wastes received? Who will design the plant? Train the operators? What features address specific national aspects? How simple/sophisticated is plant operation? How is plant performance monitored? What other environmental impacts are possible? What workplace hazards are likely? What is the permitting procedure? Is an EIA needed?
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Chapter 6.1 Summary

In order to choose appropriate technologies, need to:

address options at top of hierarchy

consider principles of treatment evaluate treatment and disposal options

select technology - on-site or off-site - to suit waste type and circumstances

consider simple options try to avoid outdated technologies undertake technology assessment
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