What is Digestion?

Digestion is a catabolic process in which large complex molecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) are broken down into simpler monomers (monosaccharides, glycerol and fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides) which can be absorbed by the body.

Function
Digestion
Breakdown of ingested food Absorption of nutrients into the blood

Once the nutrients are absorbed by the digestive system they are transported by the blood to the tissues for metabolism.
Production of cellular energy (ATP) Constructive and degradative cellular activities

Types of Digestion
There are two forms of digestion: a. mechanical: In mechanical there is no chemical change in the food. The food is simply broken down into smaller pieces and mixed with digestive juices secreted in the body. Ex. Mastication (chewing) b. chemical: In chemical digestion the is a chemical change in the food. The polymers are broken down into monomers commonly by hydrolysis reactions carried out by enzymes contained within the digestive juices.

Proses Pencernaan

Ingestion

Propulsion

Mechanical
Digestion

Chemical
Digestion

Absorption

Defecation

Six Processes of Digestion

1. Ingestion getting food into the mouth 2. Propulsion moving foods from one region of the digestive system to another 3. Mechanical digestion
Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue Churning of food in the stomach Segmentation in the small intestine

4. Chemical Digestion

Enzymes break down food molecules into their building blocks Each major food group uses different enzymes
Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars Proteins are broken to amino acids Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols

5. Absorption

6. Defecation

End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph Food must enter mucosal cells and then into blood or lymph capillaries Elimination of indigestible substances as feces

Digestive Processes

Divisions of Digestive System Organs

Two main groups
1. Alimentary canal continuous coiled hollow tube that runs from the mouth to the anus 2. Accessory digestive organs secrete digestive juices by ducts (exocrine glands) into the alimentary canal.

Alimentary Canal Organs

Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Anus

Accessory Digestive Organs

Salivary glands Teeth Pancreas Liver Gall Bladder

Mouth Oral Cavity (Ac)

Mastication (chewing) of food Mixing masticated food with saliva Initiation of swallowing by the tongue Allowing for the sense of taste

Salivary Glands (Ac)

Salivary Glands: Saliva-producing glands
Parotid glands located anterior to ears Submandibular glands Sublingual glands

Saliva: Mixture of mucus and serous fluids Helps to form a food bolus Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

Teeth (Ac)
The role is to masticate (chew) food Humans have two sets of teeth
Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth 20 teeth are fully formed by age two

Permanent teeth
Replace deciduous teeth beginning between the ages of 6 to 12 A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth

Types of teeth: Incisors - cutting Canines - tearing Premolars shearing, shredding Molars - grinding

Tooth Structure
Crown exposed part
Outer enamel Dentin Pulp cavity

Neck
Region in contact with the gum Connects crown to root

Root
Periodontal membrane attached to the bone Root canal carrying blood vessels and nerves

Pharynx (Al)
Serves as a passageway for air and food Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
Longitudinal inner layer Circular outer layer

Food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis)

Esophagus (Al)
Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing) Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the pharynx)

Liver and Gall Bladder (Accessory Organs)

Largest gland in the body Connected to the gall bladder via the common hepatic duct Composition
Bile salts Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of hemoglobin) Cholesterol Phospholipids Electrolytes

Stores bile from the liver by way of the cystic duct Bile is introduced into the duodenum in the presence of fatty food Gallstones can cause blockages

Alimentary Canal Organ Structure and Tissue Arrangement

Mucosa
Innermost layer Moist membrane
Surface epithelium Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria) Small smooth muscle layer

Submucosa
Just beneath the mucosa Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and lymphatics

Muscularis externa smooth muscle

Inner circular layer Outer longitudinal layer

Serosa
Outermost layer visceral peritoneum Layer of serous fluid-producing cells

Stomach (Al)
Located on the left side of the abdominal cavity Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter Regions of the stomach
Cardiac region near the heart Fundus Body Pylorus funnel-shaped terminal end

Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter Rugae internal folds of the mucosa External regions
Lesser curvature Greater curvature

Stomach (Al)
Acts as a storage tank for food Site of food breakdown Chemical breakdown of protein begins Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine

Pancreas (Ac)
Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme Endocrine products of pancreas
Insulin Glucagon

Large Intestine (Al)

Larger in diameter, but shorter than the small intestine Frames the internal abdomen Cecum saclike first part of the large intestine Appendix
Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis) Hangs from the cecum

Colon
Ascending Transverse Descending S-shaped sigmoidal

Rectum Anus external body opening

Functions of Large Intestine

Absorption of water Eliminates indigestible food from the body as feces Does not participate in digestion or absorption of digested food Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a lubricant Site of production of Vitamin K by symbiotic bacteria which live off the remains of food that have not been digested or absorbed in the small intestine. These bacteria produce over 50% of fecal matter.

Small Intestine (Al)

The bodys major digestive organ all digestion of food is completed in this organ Site of nutrient absorption into the blood Muscular tube extending form the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery Duodenum (25cm = 10 inches) 12 finger widths long
Attached to the stomach Curves around the head of the pancreas Where bile and pancreatic juices enter the alimentary canal Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum Extends from jejunum to large intestine

Jejunum (2.5m = 8 feet) empty

Ileum (3.6m = 12 feet) twisted

Small Intestine (Internal Structure)

Villi are small fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa Give the small intestine more surface area for absorption Fold in the intestine are called circular folds or plicae circulares Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa Do not disappear when filled with food The submucosa has Peyers patches (collections of lymphatic tissue)

Villi Internal Structure and Function

Absorptive cells are found on the surface epithelium which are simple columnar microvilliated epithelium Blood capillaries are below the surface epithelium and this is where monosaccharides, amino acids, and nucleic acids enter into the blood stream and are taken to the liver for processing Lacteals (specialized lymphatic capillaries) where lipids are absorbed and eventually re-enter the blood stream to be taken to the liver for processing.

http://highered.mcgrawhill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/cha pter26/animation__organs_of_digestion.html

PENGHADAMAN DAN PENYERAPAN

Digestion, Absorption and Transport

1. Chemical breakdown of organic molecules
into their component parts 2. After digest; - some diffuse through the intestinal wall - transported across the intestinal wall

Carbohydrates
1. Polysaccharides (split) to disaccharides by salivary and pancreatic amylases 2. Disaccharides (breakdown) to monosaccharides by disaccharides - surface of intestinal epithelium 3. Monosaccharides absorbed - blood, carried by portal veins to liver 4. Glucose - carried and enter into the cells by facilited diffusion. 5. Insulin increases the rate of glucose transport

Lipids
1. 2. 3. 4. Bile salts is emulsify lipids Pancreatic lipase (breakdown) lipid Products - micelles Lipids are stored in the adipose and in the liver 5. Lipids release when it needed by the body

Proteins
1. Proteins (split) - small polypeptides by enzymes (stomach and pancreas 2. Peptidases complete the digestive process 3. Amino acids (absorbed) - intestinal epithelial cells 4. Amino acid actively transported - growth hormon and insulin 5. Amino acid - build new proteins and energy

Water and Minerals

1. Water can move - osmotic condition 2. 99 % water absorbed 3. Most minerals are actively transported

Pengenalan Metabolisma Selular

PENGENALAN METABOLISMA SELULAR

Metabolisma atau bahasa inggerisnya metabolism adalah kadar pembakaran glukos dalam sel badan kita.

Laluan Metabolik

 Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms in order to maintain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories. Catabolism breaks down organic matter, for example to harvest energy in cellular respiration. Anabolism, on the other hand, uses energy to construct components of cells such as proteins and nucleic acids.

METABOLISMA SELULAR
Metabolisme sel = perubahan tenaga,dari satu bentuk ke bentuk yang lain.

The process by which living cells process nutrient molecules and maintain a living state; metabolism in cells can be characterized in two distinct divisions: anabolism, in which a cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other life functions such a creating cellular structure; and catabolism, in which a cell breaks down complex molecules to yield energy and reducing power.

KARBOHIDRAT
Karbohidrat adalah biomolekul yang paling banyak terdapat di alam. Setiap tahunnya diperkirakan kirakira 100 milyar ton CO2 dan H2O diubah kedalam molekul selulosa dan produk tanaman lainnya melalui proses fotosintesis.
Nama karbohidrat (carbohydrate) diambil dari komponen penyusunnya yang terdiri dari karbon, hidrogen.

KARBOHIDRAT

Rumus : Cn(H2O)n dengan perbandingan C : H : O adalah 1 : 2 : 1. Sebagai contoh glukosa C6H12O6 yang juga dapat ditulis dengan C6(H2O)6. Walaupun demikian beberapa karbohidrat memiliki nitrogen, fosfor dan sulfur. Karbohidrat digolongkan kedalam monosakarida, disakarida dan polisakarida.

Monosakarida Karbohidrat yang paling sederhana adalah monosakarida dan sebagai unit pembentuk disakarida,dan polisakarida. Monosakarida memiliki gugus aldehid atau keton dengan satu atau lebih gugus hidroksil. Monosakarida glukosa dan fruktosa memiliki enam gugus hidroksil. Atom karbon tempat pengikatan gugus hidroksil disebut sebagai pusat kiral.

 Glukosa merupakan monosakarida yang paling penting dalam metabolisme tubuh. Glukosa yang terkandung dalam nutrisi masuk ke dalam sistem sirkulasi atau ke dalam darah untuk dipindah ke selsel tubuh yang memerlukannya atau diubah pada hati menjadi molekul yang lain. Glukosa adalah sumber tenaga utama bagi sel-sel haiwan, dan merupakan satu-satunya sumber tenaga bagi manusia.

METABOLISME KARBOHIDRAT
Metabolisme merangkumi sintesis (anabolisme) dan penguraian (katabolisme) molekul organik kompleks. Metabolisme biasanya terdiri atas tahap-tahap yang melibatkan enzim, yang dikenal pula sebagai jalur metabolisme. Jumlah metabolisma merupakan semua proses biokimia di dalam organisma. Metabolisme sel merangkumi semua proses kimia di dalam sel. Tanpa metabolisme, makhluk hidup tidak dapat bertahan hidup. KARBOHIDRAT merupakan hidrat dari unsur karbon (C). Peristiwa ini banyak dijumpai pada tubuh makhluk hidup, baik tumbuhan, haiwan, atau manusia.

DISAKARIDA Disakarida seperti maltosa, laktosa dan sukrosa terdiri dari dua unit monosakarida yang terbentuk melalui suatu ikatan yang disebut ikatan glikosida. Ikatan glikosida ini mudah dihidrolisis oleh asam(asid). Oleh kerana itu diskarida dapat dihidrolisis dengan mudah dengan memanaskannya dalam larutan asam(asid). Bentuk ikatan glikosida. lanya terbentuk antara gula dengan atom N (ikatan N-glikosil) yang ditemukan pada seluruh nukleotida.

POLISAKARIDA Sebahagian besar karbohidrat yang dijumpai di bumi terdapat dalam bentuk polisakarida, iaitu polimer dengan berat molekul yang tinggi dan sering juga disebut dengan glikan atau glukan.

Struktur umum polisakarida

METABOLISMA LIPID
Lipids are the most diverse group of biochemicals. Their main structural uses are as part of biological membranes such as the cell membrane, or as a source of energy.[6] Lipids are usually defined as hydrophobic or amphipathic biological molecules that will dissolve in organic solvents such as benzene or chloroform.[7]

The fats are a large group of compounds that contain fatty acids and glycerol; a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid esters is a triacylglyceride.[8] Several variations on this basic structure exist, including alternate backbones such as sphingosine in the sphingolipids, and hydrophilic groups such as phosphate in phospholipids. Steroids such as cholesterol are another major class of lipids that are made in cells.
Lipid

METABOLISMA PROTEIN

Proteins are made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by peptide bonds. Many proteins are the enzymes that catalyze the chemical reactions in metabolism.

Other proteins have structural or mechanical functions, such as the proteins that form the cytoskeleton, a system of scaffolding that maintains the cell shape.[5] Proteins are also important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, active transport across membranes and the cell cycle.

METABOLISMA NUKLEIK ASID

Asid nukleik merupakan merupakan sejenis makromolekul yang terdiri daripada rantaian nukleotida. Dalam biokimia molekul ini mampu membawa maklumat atau membentuk struktur dalam sel.

 Asid nukleik yang biasa termasuk asid deoksiribonukleik (DNA) dan asid ribonukleik (RNA). Asid nukleik terdapat dalam semua benda hidup, kerana mereka terkandung dalam segala sel. Asid nukleik juga terdapat di dalam virus.

Nucleic acid metabolism is the process by which nucleotides are synthesized and degraded. Nucleic acid synthesis is an anabolic mechanism generally involving chemical reaction of phosphate, pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base. Destruction of nucleic acid is a catabolic procedure generally involving enzyme reactions.

METABOLISMA NUKLEIK ASID

Asid nukleik merupakan merupakan sejenis makromolekul yang terdiri daripada rantaian nukleotida. Dalam biokimia molekul ini mampu membawa maklumat atau membentuk struktur dalam sel.

 Asid nukleik yang biasa termasuk asid deoksiribonukleik (DNA) dan asid ribonukleik (RNA). Asid nukleik terdapat dalam semua benda hidup, kerana mereka terkandung dalam segala sel. Asid nukleik juga terdapat di dalam virus.

Nucleic acid metabolism is the process by which nucleotides are synthesized and degraded. Nucleic acid synthesis is an anabolic mechanism generally involving chemical reaction of phosphate, pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base. Destruction of nucleic acid is a catabolic procedure generally involving enzyme reactions.

Diet dan Pemakanan

Diet Pengambilan makanan oleh individu.

Diet Seimbang Pengambilan makanan yang mengandungi semua nutrien seperti protein,karbohidrat, lemak, vitamin, garam mineral, dan air serta pelawas dalam kuantiti yang diperlukan.

Pemakanan kajian berkaitan dengan pengambilan makanan untuk proses pertumbuhan ,pemulihan dan pengawalan kesihatan. Makanan berfungsi untuk membekalkan tenaga kepada manusia untuk terus hidup. Makanan yang dimakan setiap hari membekalkan zat-zat makanan yang diperlukan oleh tubuh badan.

Kumpulan Makanan Asas

Karbohidrat Membekalkan tenaga utama untuk keperluan badan. BERLEBIHAN: lebihan berat badan KEKURANGAN: ketosis Protein membentuk dan membaiki tisu, membentuk enzim, antibodi, hormon, agen pengangkut. BERLEBIHAN: lemak mningkat, paras kalsium drh tjejas. KEKURANGAN: penghasilan antibodi menurun & risiko jangkitan meningkat. Lemak membekalkan tenaga & pengekalan suhu, membekalkan asid lemak perlu, penyerapan vitamin larut lemak. BERLEBIHAN: lebihan berat badan.

Garam Galian
Dibahagikan kpd 2 kumpulan : - Makronutrien (dplukan dlm Kuantiti bsr) - Mikronutrien (dplukan dlm kuantiti kecil) Makronutrien

a)

Kalsium Smbr: susu, keju, ikan bilis, bijirin. Fgsi: mbina tlg & gigi yang kuat, mnolong pmbekuan drh, dplukan untk pengecutan otot & pmindahan impuls saraf. Ksn kkrgn: riket,osteoporosis, pdarahan bpnjangan. Magnesium Bijirin,syrn hijau,susu, daging. Menjana enzim yang diperlukan untuk mengeluarkan tenaga dalam tubuh. Diperlukan oleh tubuh dalam pembentukan bahan genetik dan pertumbuhan tulang. Otot lemah

Fosforus Susu, daging, bijirin, telur. Mbntk tulang & gigi yang kuat, menggiatkan enzim-enzim yang diperlukan tubuh untuk menukarkan makanan kepada tenaga. Tulang rapuh, kerosakan gigi.
Natrium Garam, daging, telur, susu. Mngekalkan keseimbangan air dlm bdn, mngekalkan tknn osmosis cecair dlm bdn. Kekejangan otot Kalium Susu, daging, pisang, sayuran hijau. Pemindahan impuls saraf, pengecutan otot. Ganguan dlm sstm saraf.

B) Mikronutrien Iodin Udang, kerang, makanan laut. Mbntk hormon tiroksina. Goiter, kretinisme pd knk-knk. Besi Hati, bayam, kacang, telur kuning. Mbntk hemoglobin. Anemia Florin Air minuman, teh, sayuran. Mengukuhkan enamel pd gigi. Karies gigi.

Vitamin
Kumpulan sebatian organik yang diperlukan dalam kuantiti yang kecil untuk memelihara dan mengekalkan kesihatan. Dikelaskan kepada 2 kumpulan : a) Larut lemak: vitamin A, D, E dan K. b) Larut air: Vitamin B kompleks dan vitamin C.

 Vitamin larut lemak tidak dapat dikumuh melalui air kencing tetapi disimpan dalam badan. Vitamin larut air tidak dapat disimpan dalam badan dan sebarang kuantiti berlebihan akan larut dalam air dan dikumuhkan keluar melalui air kencing.

Vitamin C Smbr : buah-buahan. Fgsi : memelihara tisu phubung, kshtn kulit & pemulihan luka yang cepat, mngkatkan ketahanan thdp jgkitan. Ksn kkrgn : skurvi ( gusi bdarah, kulit lebam, sendi bgkak)
Vitamin A : Sumber susu, tomato, lobak merah. Fgsi: Membina pigmen pada retina mata untuk penglihatan jelas pada waktu malam & memastikan ptumbuhan sel epitelium kulit yang sihat. Kesan kekurangan : rabun malam, kulit tidak yang sihat.

Vitamin D Sumber : Keju, mentega dan telur. Fgsi : mbantu pnyerapan kalsium & fosforus, mbina tulang dan gigi yang kuat. Ksn kekurangan: penyakit riket, karies gigi. Vitamin E Smbr: sayuran hijau,minyak kelapa sawit. Fgsi : memelihara kshtn sstm otot, saraf & sstm pedaran darah, bhn poksidaan bgi asid lmk tepu. Ksn kkrgn : kemorosotan otot & saraf

Vitamin K Smbr: hati,bayam dan kubis. Fgsi: mbantu dalam pembekuan darah. Ksn kkrgn : bdarah secara berlebihan.

Air
Merupakan 70% drp berat bdn manusia. Peranan : a) Sbg pelarut b) Medium tndk bls kimia dlm bdn. c) Medium pengangkutan bhn mknn tcerna, oksigen, bhn pkumuhan. d) Pengawalaturan suhu bdn : Bila kekurangan air, suhu tubuh akan menjadi panas dan naik. Khdiran air akan mbntu mstabilkan suhu bdn. e) Sbg pelincir : mngurangkan geseran tulang pd sendi. f) Pkumuhan : urea,asid urik & grm mineral blebihan dsingkirkn melalui air kencing dan peluh.