Chapter 2

Satellite Launching

Launches and Launch Vehicle

A satellite cannot be placed into a stable orbit unless two parameters that are uniquely coupled together => the velocity and the orbital height simultaneously correct. Example:
A Geostationary Satellite:
must be in orbit at a height of 35786.03 km above the surface of the earth or 42164.17 km from center of the earth. Inclination zero degrees. Velocity of 3074.7 m/s. tangential to the earth.

CONTINUED The further out from the earth the orbit is, the greater the energy required from the launch vehicle to reach the orbit.

In any earth satellite launch, the largest fraction of energy expended by the rocket is used to accelerate the vehicle from the rest until it is about 20 miles (32 km) above the earth.
To make efficient use of the fuel, it is common to shed excess mass from the launcher as it moves upward on launch => staging. most launch vehicle have multiple stages and as each stage is completed, that portion of the launcher is expended until the final stage places the satellite into the desired trajectory. Launch vehicles may be classified as expendable or reusable launch vehicles.

CONTINUED

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV) typical expendable launchers => US, AtlasCertaur and Delta Rockets and European Space Agency Ariane Rocket.

Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV) also referred as Space Transportation System

(STS). Partially reusable. The solid rocket booster are recovered and refurbished for future missions and the shuttle vehicle itself is flown back to earth for refurbished and reuse.

Placing Satellite Into Geostationary Orbit

There are two way in placing the satellite into geostationary orbit.
i.
ii.

Geostationary transfer orbit and AKM

Geostationary transfer orbit with slow orbit rising.

Geostationary Transfer Orbit and AKM

the initial approach to launching geostationary orbit satellite was to place the spacecraft with the final rocket stage still attached into LEO. After been attached into LEO and the orbital elements are measured, the final stage is reignited and the spacecraft is launched into a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). The GTO perigee is the original LEO orbit altitude while the GTO apogee is the GEO altitude. After a few orbits in GTO while the orbital elements are measured, a rocket motor (contained within the satellite itself) is ignited at apogee and the GTO is raised until it is a circular, geostationary orbit.

CONTINUED

Since the rocket motor fires at apogee, it is commonly referred to as the apogee kick motor (AKM). AKM => used to circularize the orbit at GEO and to remove any inclination error so that the final orbit of the satellite is very close to geostationary.
AKM

LEO

GEO

GTO

Geostationary Transfer Orbit With Slow Orbit Rising

in this procedures of launching, the spacecraft thrusters are used to raise the orbit from the GTO to GEO over a number of burns. Many of the satellite elements are deployed while in GTO (solar panel).

The satellite has two power levels of thrusters: - for more powerful orbit raising maneuvers. - for more on-board maneuvers.
since thruster take many time (hours) of operation to achieved the geostationary orbit, the perigee of the orbit is gradually raised over successive thruster firings.

LEO GTO Successive Orbit Rising

GEO

Orbital Mechanic
How orbit is achieved, Describe the motion of an object orbiting another body, How sat maneuver in space. Most sat are placed atleast 250 miles (400km) above earth surface.

Newtons law
important to describe the motion of a sat. The coordinates axes within which the orbit of the sat can be set Determine the various forces on the earth satellite.

s = ut + at2 v2 = u2 + 2at v = u + at F = ma

CONTINUED

Two main forces that acting on the sat (in stable orbit)
i. Centrifugal Force (Fout) ii. Centripetal Force (Fin)

Fout = (mv2)/ r
Me Fin Fout

Fin = (GMem)/ r2

 Centrifugal Force (Fout) - Due energy for satellite.

Attempts to fling the satellite into a higher orbit.

Centripetal Force (Fin) - due to the gravitational attraction of the

earth which the sat is orbiting. attempts to pull the sat to the earth.

Keplers Law
First law - states that the path followed by a satellite
around the primary will be an ellipse. eccentricity and semimajor axis are two of the orbital parameters specified for the sat orbiting the earth. the eccentricity e is given by

e = [(a2 _ b2)/a]

when e = 0, the orbit become circular when 0 < e < 1 , the orbit become ellipse

CONTINUED

Second Law
states that for equal time intervals, a sat will sweep out equal areas in its orbital plane. orbit is an ellipse. two shaded area of elliptical plane in which the orbit moves. from figure, sat moves in orbit betn: t1 t2 and sweep area 1 t3 t4 and sweep area 2

if then

t1 t 2 = t 3 t 4 , area 1 =area 2

 Third Law - states that the square of the period time of orbit is proportional to the cube of the mean distance betn two bodies. - the mean distance is equal to the semimajor axis a. T2 = (42 a3)/

Geostationary Orbit
The most widely used orbit. The sat appears stationary relative to the earth. Lies in equatorial plane and inclination is zero. The sat must orbit the earth in the same direction as the earth spin and at the same speed.
Where: h = 35786 km above the equator. ae h = from earth surface to geo orbit. ae = radius of earth

 Because of the orbit is circular:

a = b = ae + h

The periodic time, T for the geo orbit to the nearest minute is 23h 56m in mean solar time. Less 4 min because the differences is being accounted for the earths movement around the sun.

Exercise
1. The earth rotates once per sidereal day of 23h 56m 4.09s. Find the radius of Geo in unit km.

2. The space shuttle orbit at an altitude of 250 km above the earths surface. The mean earth radius is approximately 6378 km. Using these figures, calculate the period of the shuttle orbit the earth. Find also the linear velocity of the shuttle along the orbit.

3. A sat is in an elliptical orbit with perigee of 1000 km and apogee of 4000 km. using a mean earth radius of 6378.4 km, find the period of the orbit in hours, min and sec.

Past Paper Questions

Question 4 (Apr 2006) Determine the apogee height of the elliptical orbit satellite when the time period of the satellite to rotate around the earth is 2 hours 18 minutes and 45 seconds. Given the perigee height as 1000km with the earth radius of 6378 km and the Keplers constant is 3.986005 105 km3/s2. Compare mathematically the velocity of the satellite while its rotating along perigee and apogee. By using the Keplers second law, comment on your answers.

Question 5 (Nov 2005)

Using Keplers third law, find the period of the orbit in hours, minutes and seconds for an elliptical orbit satellite with an apogee of 4500 km and perigee of 1500km. Given the earth radius is 6378 km and the Keplers constant is 3.986005 105 km3/s2.

Question 6
In stable orbit, name two main forces that act on the satellite due to kinetic energy and gravitational attraction. Derive the equation to prove that the satellite is stable in orbit when the orbit is situated 31200km above the earth surface. Given the Keplers constant is 3.986005 105 km3/s2 . The earth radius of 6378 km and the satellite mass of 200 kg, find the velocity of the satellite on the orbit.

Question 7 (Apr 2007)

Find the height of the orbit and the period of time in hour, minute and second for the satellite maneuvers on the orbit with velocity 3.10 kms-1. Given the Keplers constant is 3.9860045 x 105 km3s-2 and the mean earths radius is 6378 km.

Antenna Look Angles

The user must be able to determine the azimuth and elevation angles of the ground stations antenna.
Local horizontal rs Figure in determining the look angles for a geostationary satellite. centre re

Look Angles Equations

For Geostationary Satellite

 The azimuth look angle (Az) can be found from:

Hemisphere Station Position of Satellite With Respect to Station
East

Relation between Az and

Az = 180 -

Northern

Northern
Southern Southern

West
East West

Az = 180 +
Az = Az = 360 -

Azimuth Angle Diagrams

Visibility Test
For a sat to be visible from an e/s, its El must be above some min value, which is atleast 0. A +ve elevation angle requires that:

This mean that the max central angular seperation betn the e/s and the subsat point is limited by:

For a nominal geo orbit, the last equation reduces to: 83.1 for the sat to be visible.

Exercise 1
1. An e/s situated in Docklands, London needs to calculate the look angle to a geo sat in the Indian Ocean operated by Intelsat. The details of the e/s site and the sat are as follows: E/s latitude and longitude are 52.0 N and 0. Sat longitude (subsat point) is 66.0 E

Exercise 2(Apr 2007)

Consider an earth station situated at Houstan , Texas has a longitude of 99.5 at West and latitude of 29.5 at North. The earth station received signal from Westar V satellite which situated at a longitude of 119.5 at West. Find the elevation angle and the azimuth angle of the earth station antenna. Determine whether the satellite is visible or not.

Exercise 3(Oct 2006)

An earth station located at 20.5 S and 78.4 E is up linking a signal to a 90.5 E geostationary satellite. Given the ratio of the distances between the satellite to the earth center and the radius of the earth as 6.6107345, calculate its azimuth, elevation angles and the distance between the earth station and the satellite. Verify the visibility of the satellite from the earth station.

Exercise 4(Apr 2006)

An earth station located in Houstan, Texas with the latitude of 29.5 N and longitude of 95.5 W transmit a signal to the Satcom I located at geosynchronous orbit with longitude of 135 W. Calculate the elevation angle and azimuth of the earth station. Determine whether the satellite is visible from the earth station.

Exercise 5(Nov 2005)

Consider an earth station located at a longitude of 80 W and its latitude located at a position somewhere in North. The geostationary satellite is located 120 West and is visible from the earth station. If the intermediate angle is 52.55, find the latitude position of the earth station, the elevation angle and the azimuth angle of the earth station antenna.