Fundamentals of Maps

DR. Mukta Girdhar

What is a Map
Map is usually a two dimensional representation (eg a flat piece of paper) of a three dimensional object (eg the Earth) occasionally it may be a three dimensional object (eg a globe) Maps are drawn to a scale Maps generally have a reference system

Five steps fro producing Maps

Reference System:- Latitude & Longitude, Grid

Latitude
The first convention to be developed was latitude. This is based on long term astronomical observations about how the sun is perceived to move across the surface of the Earth. These observations also developed the conventions that the sun: rises in the east and sets in the west

 line around the centre of the Earth would be called the Equator. This would be numbered as zero degrees (0) of latitude. From the Equator a series of parallel lines were recognised with the most northern and southern points being called the North Pole and South Pole. These would be numbered as 90 degrees North and South respectively (90N and 90S).

Longitude
Series of radiating lines which run vertically around the Earth. They connected at both ends ie at the North Pole and the South Pole. As a result of this, a series of slices much like slices of an orange are created. These are pointed at their ends and broadest in the middle. It was agreed that a primary line of longitude should be identified and that this should be zero degrees (0) of longitude.

Add Two Together

Datum
How to transfer co-ordinate system on to the surface of the earth.

Measurement system
Measurement system which is used calculate the coordinates of points on the surface of the Earth.

Projection
which allows the coordinates which have been calculated using a measuring system, to be displayed on a flat piece of paper.

Different Earth Image

Distortions
The direction between a feature and surrounding features The distance between a feature and surrounding features The shape of any feature The size of any feature

Block of 1x1

Distortion

Datum
A datum is a system which allows the location of latitudes and longitudes (and heights) to be identified onto the surface of the Earth

About the Geometry of Datums

In order to calculate where latitudes and longitudes occur on the surface of the Earth a number of fundamental geometric concepts and practices need to be applied.

The Earth as a Sphere

In this calculation the Earth is viewed as being an evenly round ball. This is called a Sphere. From an imaginary centre of the Earth, calculations are made from the centre of the Earth to the surface of the Earth.

The Earth as an Ellipsoid (or Spheroid)

However, the Earth is not evenly round - it is in fact wider around the Equator than it is between the North and South Poles. This is called an Ellipsoid (or a Spheroid).

The Earths True Shape - Its Terrain

Earth isnt just ocean (Mean Sea Level). Much of the land masses are well above the sea level (eg Mount Everest is over 8,000 metres above Mean Sea Level), while in the ocean it is well below sea level (eg the Mariana Trench is over 10,000 metres below Mean Sea Level.

The Earth as a Geoid

The Earth in reality is a very misshapen object. This is called a Geoid. The Earths Geoid is regarded as being equal to Mean Sea Level.

Relationship Between Four

Geo Centric Datum

Projection
A projection is a process which uses the latitude and longitude which has already been drawn on the surface of the Earth using a datum, to then be drawn onto a flat piece of paper - called a map.

Projection
Basic Type: depends on the characteristic that is preserved

Basic Technique: depends on the method used to project features onto a flat surface

Basic Projection Type

Equal-Area correctly shows the size of a feature Conformal correctly shows the shape of features (A map can not be both equal-area or conformal it can only be one; or the other; or neither.) Equidistant correctly shows the distance between two features True Direction correctly shows the direction between two features

Basic Projection Techniques

azimuthal the imaginary piece of paper is flat this is usually used over Polar areas conical the imaginary piece of paper is rolled into a cone this is usually used in mid-latitude areas (approximately 20 60 North and South)

cylindrical the imaginary piece of paper is rolled into a cylinder this is usually used over Equatorial areas or for World Maps

Azimuthal
the imaginary piece of paper is flat this is usually used over Polar areas These projections: have distortions increasing away from the central point have very small distortions near the centre point (the touch point of the paper) compass direction is only correct from the centre point to another feature not between other features are not usually used near the Equator, because other projections better represent the features in this area.

Azimuthal

Circles are longitude

Conical Projections

These projections: are fan shaped when used to map large areas have distortions increasing away from the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) have very small distortions along the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) shapes are shown correctly, but size is distorted usually have lines of longitude fanning out from each other and have lines of latitude as equally spaced open concentric circles

2-D Dimension

Cylindrical / Mercator Projection

These projections usually: are rectangular or oval shaped but this projection technique is very variable in its shape have lines of longitude and latitude at rightangles to each other have distortions increasing towards away from the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) have very small distortions along the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) show shapes correctly, but size is distorted.

Psudo Cylindrical or Robinson Projection

Universal Transverse Mercator System (UTM)

In 1947 the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) developed the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system (generally simply called UTM) Regular grid system which covered the entire Surface of the Earth. For low to mid-latitudes (0 to 80 North and South) the IMW established a grid system that was 6 of longitude wide and 4 of latitude high. locations, shapes and sizes and directions between all features are very accurate. Directions are not perfect.

A particular subset of the transverse Mercator is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) which was adopted originally by the US Army for largescale military maps. In the UTM system, the globe is divided into 60 zones between 84 S and 84 N, most of which are 6 wide. Each UTM zone has its own central meridian and spans 3 west and 3 east from the center of the zone. Note that the position of the cylinder developable surface is positioned at a different place around the globe for each zone. X- and Y-coordinates are in meters by convention.

 For zones in the northern hemisphere, the X-origin is a place 500,000 m west of the central meridian, and the Y-origin is the Equator. The false easting is used to eliminate negative coordinates. For zones in the southern hemisphere, the X origin is also 500,000 m west of the central meridian, but the Y-origin is the South Pole.