UNIT - II

DAMS, BRIDGES AND FOUNDATION

Dams
Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley to store flowing water.
Storage of water is utilized for following objectives:

Hydropower Irrigation Water for domestic consumption Drought and flood control For navigational facilities Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries

Structure of Dam
Upstream
MWL Max. level NWL Normal water level

Crest

Down stream
Spillway (inside dam)

Free board

Sluice way

Gallery

Heel

Toe

 Heel: contact with the ground on the upstream side

Toe: contact on the downstream side Abutment: Sides of the valley on which the structure of the dam rest Galleries: small rooms like structure left within the dam for checking operations.

Diversion tunnel: Tunnels are constructed for diverting water before the construction of dam. This helps in keeping the river bed dry.
Spillways: It is the arrangement near the top to release the excess water of the reservoir to downstream side Sluice way: An opening in the dam near the ground level, which is used to clear the silt accumulation in the reservoir side.

TYPES OF DAMS
Gravity Dams:
Reservoir Force These dams are heavy and massive wall-like structures of concrete in which the whole weight acts vertically downwards

As the entire load is transmitted on the small area of foundation, such dams are constructed where rocks are competent and stable.

Bhakra Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and Second Highest in the world. Bhakra Dam is across river Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh The construction of this project was started in the year 1948 and was completed in 1963 .

It is 740 ft. high above the deepest foundation as straight concrete dam being more than three times the height of Qutab Minar. Length at top 518.16 m (1700 feet); Width at base 190.5 m (625 feet), and at the top is 9.14 m (30 feet) Bhakra Dam is the highest Concrete Gravity dam in Asia and Second Highest in the world.

Buttress Dam:
Buttress Dam Is a gravity dam reinforced by structural supports Buttress - a support that transmits a force from a roof or wall to another supporting structure

This type of structure can be considered even if the foundation rocks are little weaker

Arch Dams:
These type of dams are concrete or masonry dams which are curved or convex upstream in plan This shape helps to transmit the major part of the water load to the abutments Arch dams are built across narrow, deep river gorges, but now in recent years they have been considered even for little wider valleys.

Earth Dams:
They are trapezoidal in shape Earth dams are constructed where the foundation or the underlying material or rocks are weak to support the masonry dam or where the suitable competent rocks are at greater depth. Earthen dams are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel, hence they are also known as Earth fill dam or Rock fill dam

BRIDGES
A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road, railroad track, river, body of water, or any other physical obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of bridges will vary depending on the function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain where the bridge is to be constructed.

Types of Bridges
Beam - The beam type is the simplest type of bridge. The beam bridge could be anything as simple as a plank of wood to a complex structure. It is made of two or more supports which hold up a beam. Arch - In the arch type of bridge, weight is carried outward along two paths, curving toward the ground.

Beam Bridge

Arch Bridge

 Suspension/Cable-stayed - The deck (trafficway) of a suspension bridge is hung by cables which hang from towers. The cables transfer the weight to the towers, which transfer the weight to the ground. Cable-stayed bridges have towers, but cables from the towers go directly to the road deck, instead of spanning from tower to tower. Cantilever - In the cantilever type of bridge, two beams support another beam, which is where the deck or trafficway is. The two beams must be anchored, and this must be done well.

Suspension Bridge

Cantilever Bridge

Foundations
Foundation is that part of the structure that lies below the ground level. The shape and size of the foundation depends on the type of structure and the nature of soil on which the structure rests ultimately.

T Shaped Foundation

T Shaped Foundation
T-shaped foundations are used in areas where the ground freezes. First, the footing is placed. Second, the walls are constructed and poured. Lastly, the slab is placed.

Slab-on-grade foundation

Slab-on-grade foundation
Slab on grade used in areas where ground does not freeze. The edges of the slab-on-grade are thicker than the interior of the slab. The slab-on-grade is monolithic (poured all at one time).

Frost Protected

Frost Protected

Only works with a heated structure. Has the benefits of a the slab-on-grade method (concrete poured monolithically) in areas subject to frost. Concrete is poured in one operation, versus 3 pours required for T-shaped foundations.

Building Components

Building Components
Foundation : The portion of a building that lies below the natural ground is calculated foundation. The foundation consists of (a) Cement Concreter (or) Lime Concrete about 300 mm thick. (b) Two or three masonry footings Functions of Foundation : (i)It transmits the load of the building to the soil (ii)It distributes the load uniformly over a large area so that the pressure exerted on the soil is less than the safe bearing capacity of the soil. (iii)The foundation enhances the stability of the building by preventing effects due to soil erosion (iv) It provides firm, level base for carrying out the building works systematically.

Building Components
Basement : The part of building the lying between the ground level and the plinth level is known as basement. Note: The floor constructed below GL is called basement floor. The above definition s suitable only where there is no basement floor. Flooring : It forms part of the basement. The top level of flooring called floor level, coincides with the plinth level. Flooring is of cement concrete or lime concrete with crushed stone or brick ballast. It is plastered smooth at the top with cement mortar. The floor top may be finished, like mosaic flooring, timber flooring, marble flooring. Superstructure : Literally speaking, the portion of the structure above the foundation is said to be super structure. But for making clear distinction, super structure is considered to represent the portion of the building from the plinth level to roof.

Building Components
Sunshades: They are structural elements projecting horizontally from the lintel provided over the door and window openings in the external walls. They prevent rain water from splashing into the rooms. Direct hit of sunshine into the rooms is also prevented by sun shades. Roof : The horizontal reinforced cement concrete (RCC) slab spanning between the supporting walls or beaks is known as roof. Some times the roof may be sloping. The roof protects the inmates from rain, snow, sun shine and wind. It acts as a cover to the building and safe guards the building from the evil effects of rain, wind, sun shine and snow. Parapet : The short masonry wall build on the roof all round the building is called parapet. It serves as an enclosure above the roof and prevents anybody from falling from the roof of the building. Weathering Course : The course laid over the roof slab for protecting the roof from the weathering effects of wind, sunshine, rain and snow is termed as weathering course.

Spread Foundation - Simple Footing

Sub Structure and Super Structure

The portion of structure situated below the ground level is called a sub structure. The portion of the structure constructed above ground level is called a super structure.

Spread or Pad Foundations Simple Footing

Walls of very light structures provided with a simple, single concrete footing. It may be a cement or lime concrete The offset (projection beyond the face of the wall) of the concrete is 15 cm on either side. The minimum thickness of the edge is 15 cm Generally uniform thickness equal to twice of the offset is adopted.

Combined Footing

Spread Foundation Stepped Footing

Masonry
The portion of civil engineering work constructed of bricks or stones and mortor is called masonry. Brick masonry is constructed of Bricks, cement mortar or lime mortar. Stone masonry is constructed of cut stones and cement mortor or lime mortor.

Brick Masonry - Definitions

Quoin: A corner of the exterior of the brickwork is called quoin. Bat: Any portion of a brick, cut or broken along its length is called bat. A bat may be bat, bat, etc., Stretcher: A brick laid with its length parallel to the length of the wall is called stretcher. Header: A brick laid with its length perpendicular to the length of the wall is called a header. Closer: It is a part of a brick either cut from a whole brick or manufactured to the required shape. The closers are used to provide bond in the brick work. Squint : It is a brick cut to a special shape. It is used at oblique quoins.

English Bond
In English bond, stretcher and header courses are laid alternately in facing the wall. The header course starts with a header at the quoin (corner). It is followed by a queen closer and is continued with only headers. The stretch course is laid with only stretcher with a lap of one fourth of their length over the headers. English enables the brick to develop good strength. It is adopted for walls carrying heavy loads.

Flemish Bond
In Flemish bond, the facing of the wall is in Flemish bond and the backing is in English bond. This bond uses snap headers. It has the desirable feature of the better strength of English bond and the better appearance.

Header bond and stretcher bond

HEADER BOND In header bond, all the courses have facing of the bricks. The overlap of joints is equal to the half the width of a brick. This overlap is effected by having a tree fourths of bat at quoins of alternate courses. It is adopted for brick masonry footing in foundation for effective transverse distribution of load. It is also used for curved walls to ensure proper alignment

Header bond and stretcher bond

STRETCHER BOND: In stretcher bond, all the courses have facing of stretchers. The overlap is equal to half the length of a brick. The overlap is effected by starting the alternate courses with a half brick bat. Stretcher bond is for partition walls and cavity walls. This bond is also known as running bond.

Hollow Brick Masonry

Hollow bricks are used for walls and partitions in our country for small extent. Hollow brick is one of the clay products. They are light and have a good thermal insulation and fire resistant properties. The hollow bricks are to be burnt properly. They should be free from cracks. They should have uniform and compact texture.

Comparison between brick and stone masonry

Brick Masonry
It is easy to construct It is cheaper where stones are not easily available It has reasonably good compressive strength

Stone Masonry
Skilled labour is needed for construction It is cheaper where stones are available in plenty It has very high compressive strength

Proper bonding is easily possible, as the shape is uniform

Any type of mortar can be used including mud mortar

Stones are to be properly dressed for proper bonding

Only cement and some times good lime mortar can be used.

Reasonably durable
Highly fire and water resistant

Very durable long losting

Reasonably fire resistant and weather effects

Walls of small thickness can be constructed

Not suitable for small thickness

Plastering
It refers to the process of covering the surface of masonry, beam or column with mortar. Mortars used for plastering: Cement Mortar Lime mortar Cement lime mortar.

Preparation of cement mortar

The materials used may be measured by volume by gauge boxes. One m3 of cement weighs 1440 kg approximately. For plastering with cement mortar 1:3, weight of water required is about 70% by weight of cement used. Cement and sand are mixed dry in the required proportions till the uniform colour is obtained. Water is then added and the plaster is then mixed till the required consistency of plaster is reached. Precaution: Cement plaster should be used within half an hour after the addition of water. Mortar mix to be used: 1:3 mix to be used for surfaces that come in contact with water often. E.g. Wash rooms 1:4, 1:6 for other surfaces.

Preparation of cement lime mortar

Cement and sand are mixed dry in the required proportions. Then, lime putty (slacked lime) mixed with water is added to the cement sand mix. The materials are mixed till a mortar with satisfactory consistency is obtained. Precaution: Cement Lime plaster should be used within two hours after the addition of water to the cement.

Plastering Method
Plastering is done by dashing mortar against the prepared surface to a uniform thickness. This is done with a help of trowel. To ensure the uniform thickness of plaster, wooden or tile pieces are fixed at spacing of 2 to 3m, to a perfect plumb. Excess plaster is removed with masons straight edge (wooden). The plaster is then pressed well with a wooden float such that the plaster fills the masonry joints well. The surface is then finished with trowel.

FLOORING
Flooring is the horizontal in any floor of a building. It is actually the space used by the occupants for moving about in the building. Different types of flooring for residential: Mud Flooring Concrete flooring Tiled flooring (Cement concrete or Mosaic) Terrazo flooring Marble Flooring

FLOORING
Different types of flooring for residential: Brick flooring Stone flooring Granolithic flooring Timber flooring Asphalt flooring Epoxy resin flooring

Mud Flooring
It is used commonly in villages. It is warm during winter and cool in summer. It would be ideally suited in places where there is extreme variation temperature. Mud flooring is cheap, sufficiently hard and durable. It can be easily constructed and maintained. Construction: Moist earth free from vegetable matter is spread to a thickness of about 25 cm on well prepared bed. Small quantity of straw pieces is added to earth to prevent possible surface cracking. Well mixed earth-straw mass is compacted to a thickness of about 15 cm without adding water. The mud flooring thus formed is maintained by applying a thin coat of cement cow dung slurry once or twice every week.