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Outline
Background
Magnetic effect of electric current
Galvanometer
Ammeter, Voltmeter, Watt meter, Energy Meter
Right Hand Thumb Rule or Curl Rule[1]: If a current carrying conductor is imagined to be held in the right hand such that the thumb points in the direction of the current, then the tips of the fingers encircling the conductor will give the direction of the magnetic lines of force.
B I I
E
TIP:
When we look at any end of the coil carrying current, if the current is in anticlockwise direction then that end of coil behaves like North Pole and if the current is in clockwise direction then that end of the coil behaves like South Pole.
Electromagnet[3]
Measuring current
If you want to measure current "somewhere" in your circuit, keep a current-measuring-device (ammeter) in the current path
A I I
Ideally, the presence of the ammeter should not influence what is going on in your circuit
Should not change the current or the voltages
Galvanometer
The galvanometer is the "classic" device to measure current Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) Instrument
Based on the magnetic effect of current coil
Working of Galvanometer[4]
Current Coil Produces Magnetic Filed Proportional to the current This current coil is placed in a permanent magnetic field When current flows, the coil experiences a torque proportional to the current The movement of the coil is "opposed" by a spring The deflection of the needle is proportional to the current
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Galvanometer (cont.)
A typical galvanometer has a "full-scalecurrent" (Ifs) of 10 A to 10 mA The resistance of the coil is typically 10 to 1000 . How can we use a galvanometer to measure currents higher than its full scale current?
1. Divide the current, so that only a well understood fraction goes through the coil 2. Measure how much goes through the coil 3. Rescale by the known fraction
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Rsh = "shunt" resistance The current I divides itself between the coil and the shunt
I = IC + Ish
By Ohms's law, Vab = IC RC = Ish Rsh Ish = IC (RC/Rsh) I = IC + Ish = IC (1 + RC/Rsh) If RC and Rsh are known, measuring IC is equivalent to measuring I Furthermore, I is still proportional to IC, which is proportional to the deflection of the needle Thus, by "switching in" different shunt resistances I can effectively change the "range" of my current 10 measurement
Example
Galvanometer, RC=10 , Ifs=1 mA What shunt resistance should I use to make the full scale deflection of the needle 100 mA?
I = IC (1 + RC/Rsh) Want the "multiplier" to be 100 (i.e. 1 mA 100 mA) 1 + RC/Rsh = 100 Rsh = 0.101
Bonus:
RC and Rsh in parallel Equivalent resistance Req = RCRsh/(RC+Rsh) = 0.1 Small, much closer to ideal ammeter (R=0)
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Measuring Voltage
If you want to measure the voltage difference between two points in your circuit you connect a voltage-measuring-device (voltmeter) to the two points
Some circuit Ideally, the voltmeter should not influence the elements inside currents and voltages in your circuit V An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance
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Galvanometer as a Voltmeter
Move the shunt resistance to be in series (rather than in parallel) with the coil Ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance, so we want to make the resistance of the device large! IC = Vab/(RC + Rsh) The needle deflection measures IC and, knowing RC and Rsh, measures Vab
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Galvanometer, RC=10 , Ifs=1 mA What shunt resistance should I use to make a voltmeter with full scale deflection of the needle Vfs = 10 V? IC = Vab/(RC + Rsh) 4 RC + Rsh = Vfs/Ifs = 10 V / 1 mA = 10 Rsh = 9,990
Example
Bonus:
IC = /(RS + R) From the needle deflection, measure IC Then, knowing the emf and RS infer R In practice RS is adjusted so that when R=0 the deflection is maximum, i.e. Ifs = /RS
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Wattmeter[5]
Instrument for the measurement of electric power, or the rate supply of energy to a circuit Power = Voltage X Current Permanent Magnet is replaced with a current coil Magnetic Field Strength is proportional to current flowing through the load Current in the moving coil (voltage coil) is proportional to voltage across the load Deflection in the needle is proportional to the Power Dissipation in the Load
Energy Meter
Energy = Power X Time To measure energy in a circuit, spring in the wattmeter is removed
Total deflection in the needle is proportional to energy dissipated in the circuit
Review
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current Quantitative Measurement of
Current Voltage Power Energy : : : : Ammeter Voltmeter Wattmeter Energy-meter
Galvanometer with Shunt Resistance Galvanometer with Series Resistance
Electron Gun
Generates electron beam Based on thermionic emission
If a metal is heated, some electrons gain enough energy to break free of the surface. This is known as thermionic emission.
These are then attracted through a large potential difference to a positive anode. The anode has a hole in the centre through which a beam of electrons flows.
Electron Beam
Used for testing circuits because it allows you to see the signals at different points in the circuit
Used for trouble-shooting an electronic system Monitor signals at the input and output of each system block Ensure that each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next.
saw-tooth applied to x plate . The x wave and yisplates can apply an external field to deflect this beam. Bright spot moves horizontally and shows a horizontal line on screen External applied toayfluorescent plate The signal beamisthen hits screen Shows the signal in the screen produces a bright spot
CRO Screen[9]
What is are the the frequency Maximum ofand the Minimum signal voltages
References
1) http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfor.html 2) http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/316/le ctures/node76.html 3) http://www.coolmagnetman.com/magelect. htm 4) http://www.buzzle.com/articles/galvanomet er-how-it-works.html Contd