Hydrology and Water Management 1

HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT
Hydrology
Hydrology deals with the origin, occurrence,
circulation, distribution, the physical and chemical
properties of water and its interaction with living
organisms.

Hydrology is an essential field of science since everything
from tiny organisms to individuals to societies to the whole of
civilization - depends so much on water.

Water management
The activity of planning, developing, distributing
and managing the optimum use of water
resources.
Branches of Hydrology
Hydrology can generally be divided into two main
branches:
Engineering Hydrology
(Planning, design and Operation of Engineering projects for the control and use of water)

Applied Hydrology
(Hydrological cycle, precipitation, runoff, relationship between precipitation and runoff,
hydrographs, Flood Routing)
Branches of Hydrology (cont.)
Hydrology can be divided into the following branches
Chemical Hydrology : Study of chemical characteristics of
water.

Ecohydrology : Interaction between organisms and the
hydrological cycle.

Hydrogeology : Also referred to as geohydrology, is the study
of the presence and movement of ground water.

Hydroinformatics : is the adaptation of information
technology to hydrology and water resource applications.
Hydrometeorology : is the study of the transfer of water and
energy between land and water body surfaces and the lower
atmosphere.

Isotope Hydrology : is the study of isotropic signatures of
water (origin and age of water).

Surface water Hydrology : is the study of hydrologic processes
that operate at or near earths surface.

Ground water Hydrology : is the study of underground water.
Drainage basin management : covers water storage in the
form of reservoir and flood protection.

Water quality : includes the chemistry of water in rivers and
lakes, both of pollutants and natural solutes.
Application of Hydrology
Determining the water balance of a region.

Determining the agricultural water balance.

Designing riparian restoration projects.

Mitigation and predicting floods, landslides and
drought risk.

Flood forecasting and flood warnings.

Application of Hydrology (cont.)
Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural
productivity.

Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power
generation.

Designing bridges.

Designing sewers and urban drainage system.

Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as, erosion or
sedimentation.

Application of Hydrology (cont.)
Assessing the impact of natural and anthropogenic
environmental change.

Assessing containment transport risk and establishing
environmental policy guidelines

Hydrological cycle
Hydrological cycle also known as Water cycle or
HO cycle, describes the continuous Movement of
water on, above and below the surface of the
earth.
Hydrological cycle (cont.)
Condensation
Transpiration
Evaporation
Overland Water Flow
Lake, Pond, Ocean
Groundwater Recharge
Well
Aquifer
Precipitation
The main processes involved in hydrological cycle are
Evaporation
Condensation
Precipitation
Interception
Infiltration
Percolation
Transpiration
Runoff
storage

The water cycle begins with the evaporation of water from
oceans and other water bodies. The resulting vapors are
transported by moving air and under proper conditions, the
vapor are condensed to form clouds, which in turn results in
precipitation.
the precipitation which falls upon land is dispersed in several
ways. The greater part is temporarily retained in the soil near
where it falls and is ultimately returned to the atmosphere by
evaporation and transpiration by plants. A portion of the
water flows over surface soil to stream channels, while other
penetrates into the ground to become part of the ground
water. Under the influence of gravity, both surface and
underground water move towards lower elevations and may
eventually discharge into the oceans.
This Hydrologic Cycle recycles the earths valuable
water supply. In other words, the water keeps
getting reused over and over.
Just think, the next glass of water you drink could
have been used by a dinosaur in the Mesozoic Era
one hundred million years ago!
Water in that glass could have been a liquid, a
solid, and a gas countless times over thanks to the
water cycle.
Precipitation
The term precipitation as used in hydrology is
meant for all forms of moisture emanating from
the clouds and all forms of water like rain, snow,
hail and sleet derived from atmospheric vapors,
falling to the ground.
Precipitation is one of the most important events of hydrology.
Floods and droughts are directly related to the occurrence of
precipitation. Water resources management, water supply
schemes, irrigation, hydrologic data for design of hydraulic
structures and environmental effects of water resources
development projects are related to precipitation in one way or the
other. So it is important to study various aspects of precipitation.

Forms of Precipitation
Drizzle : These are the minute particles of water at start of rain.
These consist of water drops under 0.5 mm diameter and its
intensity is usually less than 1.0 mm/hr. Their speed is very slow
and we cannot even feel them. Therefore they cannot flow over
the surface but usually evaporate.

Rain : It is form of precipitation in which the size of drops is more
than 0.5 mm and less than 6.25 mm in diameter. It can produce
flow over the ground and can infiltrate and percolate. Both the
duration as well as rate of rainfall are important. If the rainfall per
unit time is greater than the rate of infiltration, the rain water can
flow over the surface of earth.

Forms of Precipitation (cont.)
Glaze : It is the ice coating formed on drizzle or rain drops as it
comes in contact with the cold surfaces on the ground.

Sleet : Sleet is frozen rain drops cooled to the ice stage while falling
through air at subfreezing temperatures.

Snow : Snow is precipitation in the form of ice crystals resulting from
sublimation i.e. change of water vapor directly to ice.

Forms of Precipitation (cont.)
Snowflakes : A snowflake is made up of a number of ice crystals
fused together.

Hail : Hail is the type of precipitation in the form of balls or lumps
of ice over 5 mm diameter formed by alternate freezing and
melting as they are carried up and down by highly turbulent air
currents. The impact of these is also more. A single hailstone
weighing over a pound has been observed.

Factors influencing Precipitation
formation
A lifting mechanism to produce cooling of the air.

A mechanism to produce condensation of water vapors and
formation of cloud droplets.

A mechanism to produce growth of cloud droplets to size
capable of falling to the ground against the lifting force of air.

formation (cont.)
Mechanism of cooling
When air ascends from near the surface to upper
levels in the atmosphere it cools.

This is the only mechanism capable of producing the degree and
rate of cooling needed to account for heavy rainfall.

Cooling lowers the capacity of a given volume of air to hold a
certain amount of water vapor.

As a result super saturation occurs and the excess moisture over
saturation condenses through the cooling process.

formation (cont.)
Condensation of water vapor
Condensation of water into cloud droplets takes place on
hygroscopic nuclei which are small particles having an affinity for
water.

The source of these condensation nuclei are the particles of sea
salt or products of combustion of certain sulfurous and nitrous acid
and carbon dioxide.

There is always sufficient nuclei present in the atmosphere.

formation (cont.)
Growth of Droplet
Growth of droplets is required if the liquid water present in the
cloud is to reach the ground. The two processes regarded as most
effective for droplet growth are:

i. Coalescence of droplets through collision due to difference in
speed of motion between larger and smaller droplets.
ii. Co-existence of ice crystals and water droplets.

Co-existence effect generally happens in the temperature range
from 10
0
to 20
o
F.

formation (cont.)
If in a layer of clouds there is a mixture of water droplets and ice
crystals, the saturation vapor pressure over ice is lower than that
over water. This leads to the evaporation of water drops and
condensation of much of this water on ice crystals causing their
growth and ultimate fall through the clouds. This effect is known as
Bergerons effect.

The ice crystals will further grow as they fall and collide with water
droplets.

Classification of Precipitation Based on
the Lifting Mechanism

The precipitation is often classified according to the factor
responsible for lifting of air to higher altitudes. Following are
the various types of precipitation based on this classification.

i. Convectional Precipitation
ii. Orographic Precipitation
iii. Cyclonic Precipitation

the Lifting Mechanism (cont.)
Convectional Precipitation
The main cause of Convectional precipitation is thermal
convection of the moisture laden air (rising of warmer, lighter air in
colder, denser surroundings).
A major portion of the solar radiation is utilized in heating the
earth. As the earth conducts heat slowly, the heat accumulates at
the surface of the earth and air which comes in its contact is
heated up and the lapse rate near the surface of the earth
increases rapidly. With the passage of time as the sun gets higher
and higher the lapse rate increases further and air becomes
unstable.
Vertical currents are then set up which carry heat and the moisture
laden air is picked up from the surface to higher levels. Due to
convection, the moist air in the lower levels of the atmosphere
rises up to the condensation level where clouds develop and with
further convection these clouds finally grow resulting in a
thunderstorm.
Orographic Precipitation
In the orographic precipitation, expansion and condensation
occurs because moisture laden air masses are lifted by
contact with orographic (mountain) barriers.
This type of precipitation is most pronounced on the
windward side of mountain range, generally heaviest
precipitation occurs where favorable orographic effects are
present.
Orographic precipitation also occurs in the inland areas
where mountain ranges rise above the surrounding areas in
the path of the moisture laden air masses.
Cyclonic precipitation
Precipitation in plain regions is generally cyclonic in character.
Cyclonic precipitation results from the lifting of air converging
into a low-pressure area or cyclone.
Cyclonic precipitation can be frontal or nonfrontal.
Frontal precipitation results from the lifting of warm air on
one side over a colder denser air on the other side.
Warm-front precipitation is formed in the warm air advancing
upward over a cold air mass.
Cold-front precipitation is formed in the warm air is forced
upward by an advancing mass of cold air.

In the Indo-Pak Subcontinent, the cyclonic storms form in the
Bay of Bengal in different months. During April, May and June
most of these storms do not reach Pakistan. But some of
them affect Bangladesh and give very heavy rainfall there.
During the summer monsoon season, the cyclonic storms
reach Pakistan and are fed with moisture from the Arabian
sea resulting in heavy rainfall over the Northern areas of
Pakistan. In September, October and November these storms
are very destructive in Bangladesh. Such storms cause
considerable loss of life and property over the coastal
districts. Cyclonic storms also form in Arabian sea but their
number is far less.

the Lifting Mechanism (Cont.)

Measurement of precipitation
All forms of precipitation are measured on the
basis of the vertical depth of water that would
accumulate on a level surface if the precipitation
remained where it fell. The amount of precipitation
is measured in units of length (millimeters/inches).
Measurement of precipitation (cont.)
The precipitation is measured by rain gauges/precipitation gauges.
There are two types of rain gauges.

Non-recording rain gauge (standard rain gauge)

Recording rain gauge

The main difference between these rain gauges is that with the
help of recording rain gauges we get the rain recorded
automatically with respect to time, so intensity of rain fall is also
known whereas an observer has to take readings from non
recording rain gauge for rain and he has to record the time also, for
calculation of intensity of rain fall.

Non-Recording/Standard gauge
The standard gauge of U.S. Weather Bureau has a collector of
200 mm diameter and 600 mm height. Rain passes from a
collector into a cylindrical measuring tube inside the overflow
can. The measuring tube has a cross sectional area 1/10
th
of
the collector, so that 2.5 mm rain fall will fill the tube to 25
mm depth. A measuring stick is marked in such a way that
1/10
th
of a cm depth can be measured. In this way net rainfall
can be measured to the nearest 1 mm. The collector and tube
are removed when snow is expected. The snow collected in
the outer container or overflow can is melted, poured into
the measuring tube and then measured. This type of rain
gauge is one of the most commonly used rain gauges.


Sources of Error
Some water is used to wet the surface of instrument.
The rain recorded may be less than the actual rainfall due
to the direction of the rainfall as affected by wind.
Dents in the collector and tube may also cause error.
Some water is absorbed by the measuring stick.
Losses due to evaporation can also take place.
The volume of stick replaces some water which causes
some error.
Recording Rain gauge

Recording rain gauges can be divided into the following types:

Float type

Weighing type

Tipping bucket type
Float Type Rain Gauge
This type of rain gauge also has a receiver and a float chamber along
with some recording mechanism or arrangement. In this type the
rain is led into a float chamber containing a light, hollow float. The
vertical movement of the float as the level of water rises is
recorded on a chart with the help of a pen connected to float. The
chart is wrapped around a rotating clock driven drum. To provide a
continuous record for 24 hours the float chamber has either to be
very large, or some automatic means are provided for emptying
the float chamber quickly when it becomes full, the pen then
returning to the bottom of the chart. This is usually done with
some sort of siphoning arrangement. This arrangement activates
when the gauge records a certain fixed amount of rain (mostly 10
mm of rainfall.). Snow can not be measured by this type of rain
gauge.

Weighing Type Rain Gauge
The weighing type rain gauge consists of a receiver, a bucket,
a spring balance and some recording arrangement. The
weighing type gauge weighs the rain or snow which falls
into a bucket which is set on a lever balance. The weight of
the bucket and content is recorded on a chart by a clock
driven drum. The record is in the form of a graph, one axis
of which is in depth units and the other has time. The
records show the accumulation of precipitation. Weighing
type gauges operate from 1 to 2 months without stopping.
But normally one chart is enough only for 24 hours. This
type of rain gauge has advantage of measuring snow also.
The receiver is removed when snow is expected.

Tipping Bucket Type Rain Gauge
This type of gauge is equipped with a remote recorder
located inside the office which is away from the actual site.
The gauge has two compartments pivoted in such a way
that one compartment receives rain at one time. A certain
amount of rain (usually 0.25 mm fills one compartment
and over balances it so that it tips, emptying into a
reservoir and bringing the second compartment of the
bucket into place beneath the funnel of receiver. As the
bucket is tipped by each 0.25 mm of rain it actuates an
electrical circuit, causing a pen to mark on a revolving
drum. This type of gauge is not suitable for measuring
snow without heating the collector. Plotting is similar to
that of other recording rain gauges.

Sources of Error
Dents in the collector.
Moistening of inside-surface of the funnel and the tube.
Rain drops splashing from the collector.
For very intense rain some water is still pouring into the
already filled bucket.
Inclination of the gauge may result in catching less or more
rain than the actual amount.
Error in measurement due to wind.

Remedial measures for Error in Precipitation measurement
Removal of error due to dents obviously needs repair of the
instrument. For rain recorded with dents a correction should be
applied.
Errors such as moistening of the inside surfaces of the gauge,
splashing of rainwater from the collector and pouring of water
into the already filled bucket during an intense rain can only be
corrected by some correction factor.
Inclined instrument needs to be reinstalled. The correction
factor however can be calculated from the angle of inclination.
For wind protection certain wind shields are designed and used
which are called Splash Guards. Proper setting of gauge above
ground level is necessary.
Example:
A rain gauge recorded 125 mm of precipitation. It was
found later that the gauge was inclined at an angle of
20 degree with the vertical. Find the actual
precipitation.

Solution:
P(measured) = 125 mm
Angle of inclination () = 20
o
with the vertical
P
(actual)
= P
(measured)
/cos() = 125/cos20
o
= 133 mm

Measurement of precipitation by Radar
This is a modern technique for measurement of rainfall
rate. It can also detect local movement of areas of
precipitation. The electromagnetic energy released
and received back by radar is a measure of rainfall
intensity. The measurement is appreciably affected by
trees and buildings. However extent of rainfall can be
estimated with reasonable accuracy. Use of radar is
useful where number of rain gauges installed in an
area is not sufficient.

Rain Gauge Network
The number of rain gauges and their distribution
affect the nature of collected precipitation data.
The larger the number of rain gauges the more
representative will be the data collected. But on
the other hand we have to observe other factors
also, like economy of the project, accessibility of
certain areas and topography of the area. So, one
has to look for some optimum solution. In this
regard the World Meteorological Organization
(WMO) has made following recommendations for
minimum number of rain gauges in a catchment:

Rain Gauge Network (cont.)
In comparatively flat regions of temperate,
Mediterranean and Tropical Zones, the ideal is at least
one station for 230 345 sq. miles. However one
station for 345 1155 sq. miles is also acceptable
In mountainous regions of Temperate, Mediterranean
and Tropical Zones, the ideal is at least one station for
35 95 sq. miles. However one station for 95 385 sq.
miles is also acceptable.
In arid and polar zones, one station for 575 3860 sq.
miles is acceptable.

Analysis of Precipitation data

Estimation of missing precipitation data

Consistency of precipitation data or Double Mass
Index
Estimation of missing Precipitation
data (cont.)
Some precipitation stations may have short breaks in the
records because of absence of the observer or because of
instrumental failures. It is often necessary to estimate this
missing record.
In the procedure used by the U.S. Weather Bureau, the
missing precipitation of a station is estimated from the
observations of precipitation at some other stations as
close to and as evenly spaced around the station with the
missing record as possible.
The station whose data is missing is called interpolation
station and gauging stations whose data are used to
calculate the missing station data are called index stations.

data (cont.)
There are two methods for estimation of missing
data.

Arithmetic mean method
Normal ratio method

data (cont.)
Simple Arithmetic Mean method
According to the arithmetic mean method the missing
precipitation P
x
is given as:
Px=

Where n is the number of nearby stations, P
i

is
precipitation at ith station and Px is missing
precipitation.
P
n
i
n i
i
=
=1
1

Estimation of missing precipitation
data
In case of three stations 1, 2 and 3,
P
x
= (P
1
+ P
2
+ P
3
)/3

Naming stations as A, B and C instead of 1, 2 and 3
P
x
= (P
a
+ P
b
+ P
c
)/3

Where P
a
, P
b
and P
c
are defined above.

data (cont.)
Normal Ratio method
According to the normal ratio method the missing
precipitation is given as:
P
x
=

Where P
x
is the missing precipitation for any storm at the
interpolation station x, P
i
is the precipitation for the
same period for the same storm at the ith station of
a group of index stations, N
x
the normal annual
precipitation value for the x station and N
i
the normal
annual precipitation value for ith station.
P
N
N
n
i
n i
i i
x
=
=1
1
data (cont.)
For example, for the symbols defined above for
three index stations in a catchment area.

P
x
= ] [
3
1
3
3
2
2
1
1
P
N
N
P
N
N
P
N
N
x x x
+ +
data (cont.)
If the normal annual precipitation of the index
stations lies within 10% of normal annual
precipitation of interpolation station then we
apply arithmetic mean method to determine the
missing precipitation record otherwise the normal
ratio method is used for this purpose.

data (cont.)
Consider that record is missing from a station X.
Now let,
N = Normal annual precipitation.

(Mean of 30 years of annual
precipitation data)
P = Storm Precipitation.
Let P
x
be the missing precipitation for station X and N
x
, the normal
annual precipitation of this station, N
a
, N
b
and N
c
are normal
annual precipitations of nearby three stations, A, B and C
respectively while P
a
, P
b
and P
c
are the storm precipitation

of that
period for these stations.
Now we have to compare N
x
with N
a ,
N
b
and N
c
separately. If
difference of N
x
- N
a
, N
x
- N
b
, N
x
- N
c
is within 10% of N
x
then we use
simple arithmetic mean method otherwise the normal ratio
method is used.

data (cont.)
Example : Find out the missing storm precipitation of station C
given in the following table:

Solution:
In this example the storm precipitation and normal annual
precipitations at stations A, B, D and E are given and missing
precipitation at station C is to be calculated whose normal annual
precipitation is known. We will determine first that whether
arithmetic mean or normal ratio method is to be applied.

Station A B C D E
Storm precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 ---- 11.7 8.0
Normal Annual
precipitation (cm)
100.3 109.5 93.5 125.7 117.5
data (cont.)
10% of N
c
= 93.5x10/100 = 9.35

After the addition of 10% of Nc in Nc, we get 93.5 + 9.35=102.85

And by subtracting 10% we get a value of 84.15

So N
a
, N
b
, N
d
or N
e
values are to be checked for the range 102.85 to
84.15.

If any value of N
a
, N
b
, N
d
or N
e
lies beyond this range, then normal
ratio method would be used. It is clear from data in table above
that N
b
, N
d
and N
e
values are out of this range so the normal ratio
method is applicable here, according to which:
data (cont.)
P
x
=

P
c
= (1/4 )(93.5 x 9.7/100.3+ 93.5 x 8.3/109.5+ 93.5 x
11.7/125.7+ 93.5 x 8.0/117.5) = 7.8 cm

P
N
N
n
i
n i
i i
x
=
=1
1
data (cont.)
Example
Precipitation station X was inoperative for part of
a month during which a storm occurred. The
storm totals at three surrounding stations A, B and
C were respectively 10.7, 8.9 and 12.2 cm. The
normal annual precipitation amounts at stations X,
A, B and C are respectively 97.8, 112, 93.5 and
119.9 cm. Estimate the storm precipitation for
station X.

data (cont.)
Solution
Pa = 10.7 cm Na = 112 cm
Pb = 8.90 cm Nb = 93.5 cm
Pc = 12.2 cm Nc = 119.9 cm
Px = ? Nx = 97.8 cm
10% of Nx = 97.8 x 10/100 = 9.78 cm.

Nx - Na = 97.8 - 112 = -14.2 cm More than + 10% of Nx (no need
of calculating Nx Nb and Nx Nc

Px = (1/3)( 97.8x 10.7/112+ 97.8x 8.90 /93.5 + 97.8x 12.2 /119.9)
Px = 9.5 cm

Consistency of Precipitation Data or
Double Mass Analysis
In using precipitation in the solution of hydrologic
problems, it is necessary to ascertain that time
trends in the data are due to meteorological
changes. Quite frequently these trends are the
result of the changes in the gauge location,
changes in the intermediate surroundings such as
construction of buildings or growth of trees, etc.
and changes in the observation techniques.
Double Mass Analysis (cont.)
Due to such changes the data might not be
consistent. The consistency of the record then is
required to be determined and the necessary
adjustments be made. This can be achieved by the
method called the double mass curve technique.
The double mass curve is obtained by plotting the accumulated
precipitation at the station in question along X-axis and the average
accumulated precipitation of a number of other nearby stations
which are situated under the same meteorological conditions along
Y-axis. If the curve has a constant slope, the record of station X is
consistent. However, if there is any break in the slope of the curve,
the record of the station is inconsistent and has to be adjusted by
the formula.
P
a
= (S
a
/ S
o
)x P
o

Where P
a
= Adjusted precipitation.
P
o
= Observed precipitation.
S
a
= Slope prior to the break in the curve
S
o
= Slope after the break in the curve.
All values after break are to be adjusted.
Example
Check consistency of the data given in table below
and adjust it if it is found to be inconsistent.

Year Annual
precipitation at x
(mm)
Mean of annual
precipitation of 20
surrounding
stations (mm)
Year Annual
precipitation at
x (mm)
Mean of
annual
precipitation
of 20
surrounding
stations (mm)
1972 188 264 1954 223 360
1971 185 228 1953 173 234
1970 310 386 1952 282 333
1969 295 297 1951 218 236
1968 208 284 1950 246 251
1967 287 350 1949 284 284
1966 183 236 1948 493 361
1965 304 371 1947 320 282
1964 228 234 1946 274 252
1963 216 290 1945 322 274
1962 224 282 1944 437 302
1961 203 246 1943 389 350
1960 284 264 1942 305 228
1959 295 332 1941 320 312
1958 206 231 1940 328 284
1957 269 234 1939 308 315
1956 241 231 1938 302 280
1955 284 312 1937 414 343
Solution
A double mass curve is plotted by taking
cumulative of average precipitation of surrounding
stations along x-axis and accumulative
precipitation of station X along
y-axis for which consistency of data is being
investigated.
The double mass curve is shown in Figure
Year Cummulative Annual
precipitation at x (mm)
Cummulative precipitation of 20
surrounding stations (mm)
Corrected Precipitation Remarks
1972 188 264 188
N
o

c
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

1971 373 492 185
1970 683 878 310
1969 978 1175 295
1968 1186 1459 208
1967 1473 1809 287
1966 1656 2045 183
1965 1960 2416 304
1964 2188 2650 228
1963 2404 2940 216
1962 2628 3222 224
1961 2831 3468 203
1960 3115 3732 284
1959 3410 4064 295
1958 3616 4295 206
1957 3885 4529 269
1956 4126 4760 241
1955 4410 5072 284
1954 4633 5432 223
1953 4806 5666 173
1952 5088 5999 282
1951 5306 6235 218
1950 5552 6486 246
1949 5836 6770 190.8
P
r
e
c
i
p
i
t
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

S
t
a
t
i
o
n

'
X
'

x

0
.
7

1948 6329 7131 345
1947 6649 7413 224
1946 6923 7665 192
1945 7245 7939 225.4
1944 7682 8241 306
1943 8071 8591 272.3
1942 8376 8819 213.5
1941 8696 9131 224
1940 9024 9415 229.6
1939 9332 9730 215.6
1938 9634 10010 211.4
1937 10048 10353 290

Where
P
a
= (S
a
/ S
o
)x P
o

P
a
= Adjusted precipitation.
P
o
= Observed precipitation.
S
a
= Slope prior to the break in the curve
S
o
= Slope after the break in the curve.

The correction for slope is applied to readings beyond
break in slope. The calculations are shown in table.
Slope of 1st line = S
a
= 0.854
Slope of deviating line = S
o
= 1.176
Correction to values (multiplying factor) = 0.854/1.176
= 0.70
So up to 1950 no correction is required. Before 1950
all readings are multiplied by slopes ratio of 0.7 to get
corrected precipitation. Note that data in latter
interval (1973-1950) is considered more authentic so
kept in initial reach of the graph.
Estimation of Average Precipitation
over a Basin
To find out runoff from a catchment and most of other hydrologic
analyses, it is important to know the average precipitation of a
certain part of catchment or for the whole of the catchment area.
To find out average precipitation of watershed, records of
precipitation from different rain gauge stations is used. There are
many factors which affect the reliability of average precipitation of
watershed determined by using the data from individual stations in
the watershed.
For example : the total number of rain gauges and their distribution
in the catchment (larger the number of rain gauges, the reliable will
be the calculated average precipitation), the size and shape of area
of catchment, distribution of rainfall over the area and topography
of the area and the method used for calculating average
precipitation.
over a Basin (cont.)
There are three methods to find average
precipitation over a basin. Accuracy of estimated
average precipitation will depend upon the choice
of an appropriate method. These methods are
described below:
Arithmetic Mean Method
Thiessen Polygon Method
Isohyetal Method
Arithmetic Mean Method
In this method the average precipitation over an area is the arithmetic average of
the gauge precipitation values. We take data for only those stations which are
within the boundary. This is the simplest method but is applicable only for flat
areas and not for hilly areas i.e. this method is used when:
Basin area is flat.
All stations are uniformly distributed (within practical limits) over the area.
The rainfall is also nearly uniformly distributed over the area.
According to this method

P (average) =

Or P
av
= [P
1
+P
2
+P
3
++P
n
]/n
Where P
i
is precipitation at station i and there are n number of gauges installed
in the catchment area from where the data has been collected.
|
.
|
\
|
=
n
i
i
P
n
1
1
Example
Six rain gauges were installed in a relatively flat area and storm
precipitation from these gauges was recorded as 3.7, 4.9, 6.8, 11.4,
7.6 and 12.7 cm respectively from gauges 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Find
average precipitation over the catchment.

Solution
As the area is relatively flat so we apply the arithmetic mean
method. According to arithmetic mean method

P(average) = (3.7 + 4.9 + 6.8 + 11.4 + 7.6 + 12.7)/6 = 7.85 cm.
Thiessen Polygon Method
The fundamental principle followed in this method consists of weighing the values
at each station by a suitable proportion of the basin area. In this method, a
special weighing factor is considered.
The following steps are used to determine average precipitation by Thiessen
Polygon Method.
1. Draw the given area according to a certain scale and locate the stations where
measuring devices are installed.
2. Join all the stations to get a network of non-intersecting system of triangles.
3. Draw perpendicular bisectors of all the lines joining the stations and get a
suitable network of polygons, each enclosing one station. It is assumed that
precipitation over the area enclosed by the polygon is uniform.
4. Measure area of the each polygon.
5. Calculate the average precipitation. For the whole basin by the formula.


P
(average)
= (P
1
A
1
+ P
2
A
2
+ ...........+ P
n
A
n
)/A
Where,
P
1
= Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of
area A
1

P
2
= Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of
area A
2

and so on
P
n
=

Precipitation. at station enclosed by polygon of
area A
n

And A represents the total area of the catchment.
Example : Following is shown map of a catchment having
6 rainfall recording stations. Find the Average Precipitation
over the whole catchment.

The precipitation and polygon area are given
below.
Station
Precipitation (mm) Polygon Area
(km)
Daggar
48
5,068.76
Besham
33
4,349.17
Shinkiari
25
1,399.25
Phulra
32
1,693.80
Tarbela
56
2,196.33
Oghi
30
2,234.29
Solution : The calculations are done in tabular form

Mean Precipitation = = 666.02x10
6
x10/16941.60x10
6

Mean Precipitation = 39.3 mm

Station Precipitation P
(mm)
Polygon Area A
(km)
P x A (x10
6
m)
Daggar 48 5,068.76 243.30
Besham 33 4,349.17 143.52
Shinkiari 25 1,399.25 34.98
Phulra 32 1,693.80 54.20
Tarbela 56 2,196.33 122.99
Oghi 30 2,234.29 67.03
Total 16,941.60 666.02
=
=
=
=
n i
i
i
Ai
1
n i
1
PiAi

Example : From the data given in Table below, which was
obtained from Thiessen Polygon map of a catchment, find out
the average precipitation of the catchment.

Sr
No
Gauge
precipitatio
n (cm)
Area of Thiessen
Polygon enclosing
the station
(sq. km)
Sr No Gauge
precipitation
(cm)
Area of Thiessen
Polygon enclosing
the station
(sq. km)
1 10.2 416 4 9.4 520
2 8.1 260 5 15.2 390
3 12.7 650 6 7.6 325
Solution : According to Thiessen Polygon Method
P
(average)
= (P
1
A
1
+ P
2
A
2
+ ...........+ P
n
A
n
)/A
The calculations are shown in tabular form in Table.

P
(average)
= 27890.20 2561=10.9 cm
Gauge precipitation
(cm)
Area of Thiessen Polygon
enclosing
the station (sq. km)
Volume = P
i
x A
i
(x10
4
m)
(1) = P
i
(2) = A
i
(3) = (1)x(2)
10.2 416 4243.20
8.1 260 2106.00
12.7 650 8255.00
9.4 520 4888.00
15.2 390 5928.00
7.6 325 2470.00
Total 2561 27890.20
Example : There are 10 observation stations, 7 being inside and 3 in
neighborhood of a catchment. Thiessen Polygons were drawn for a
storm data from these observation stations and the data given in
Table below was obtained. Find out the average precipitation of the
catchment.

Sr No Gauge precipitation (cm) Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing
the station (sq. km)
1 5 100
2 3 160
3 4 200
4 3.5 215
5 4.7 250
6 6 175
7 4 100
Solution : According to Thiessen Polygon Method
P
(average)
= (P
1
A
1
+ P
2
A
2
+ ...........+ P
n
A
n
)/A

P
(average)
= 5157.5 1200 = 4.3 cm

Gauge precipitation
(cm)
Area of Thiessen Polygon enclosing the
station (sq. km)
Volume = P
i
xA
i
(x10
4
m)
(1) = P
i
(2) = A
i
(3) = (1)x(2)
5
100
500
3
160
480
4
200
800
3.5
215
752.50
4.7
250
1175
6
175
1050
4
100
400
Total 1200 5157.50
Isohyetal Method
The most accurate method of averaging precipitation over an area
is the isohyetal method.
For estimation of average precipitation of the catchment by
isohyetal method the following steps are used:

1. Draw the map of the area according to a certain scale.
2. Locate the points on map where precipitation measuring gauges
are installed.
3. Write the amount of precipitation for stations.
4. Draw isohyets (Lines joining points of equal precipitation).
5. Measure area enclosed between every two isohyets or the area
enclosed by an isohyet and boundary of the catchment.

Find average precipitation by the formula.
P
(average)
= (P
1
A
1
+ P
2
A
2
+ ...........+ P
n
A
n
)/A
Where,
P
1
= Mean precipitation of two isohyets 1 and 2
A
1
= Area between these two isohyets.
P
2
= Mean precipitation of two isohyets 2 and 3
A
2
= the area b/w these two isohyets.
and, so on
P
n
= Mean precipitation of isohyets n-1 and n
A
n
= the area between these two isohyets.

It may be noted that the last and first areas mentioned above may be between an
isohyet and boundary of the catchment. In this case the precipitation at the
boundary line is required which may be extrapolated or interpolated.

Example: From the data given in table below, which was obtained from isohyetal
map of a catchment, find out the average precipitation of the catchment.

Note that the isohyet No. 1 and 8 were out of the boundary of the catchment. The area
between isohyet No. 2 and the boundary was estimated to be 312 sq. km and that of
between isohyet No. 7 and boundary was 494 sq. km. Precipitation on these
boundaries was interpolated as 3.0 and 3.1 cm, respectively.

Isohyet
No.
Isohyetal precipitation
(cm)
Area enclosed between
two isohyets. (sq km)
1 2.5 390
2 5.0 520
3 7.5 650
4 10.0 390
5 10.0 390
6 7.5 442
7 5.0 546
8 2.5
Solution : In isohyetal method we have to calculate the average precipitation of
every two consecutive isohyets. This is given in Table below.

P
(average)
= (P
1
A
1
+ P
2
A
2
+ ...........+ P
n
A
n
)/A
= 22260.2/3198= 6.96 cm

Isohyet No. Isohyetal
precipitation (cm)
Average of precipitation of
two consecutive isohyets
(cm)
Area enclosed between
two isohyets
(sq km)
Volume
(x10
4
m)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) = (3) x (4)
Boundary 3 4 (for isohyet and
boundary)
312 (for isohyet and
boundary)
1248.00
2 5.0 6.25 520 3250.00
3 7.5 8.75 650 5687.50
4 10.0 10.0 390 3900.00
5 10.0 8.75 390 3412.50
6 7.5 6.25 442 2762.50
7 5.0 4.05(for isohyet and
boundary)
boundary)
2000.70
Boundary 3.1
3198 22260.2
Example : In a catchment of area 1,000 sq km, there are 8
rain gauges, 5 inside the area and 3 outside, in its
surroundings. Isohyets were drawn from the data of these
rain gauges for a storm. From the isohyetal map the following
information was obtained: areas between 1 and 2 cm
isohyets, 2 and 3 cm, 3 and 4 cm and 4 and 5 cm isohyets was
105, 230, 150 and 220 sq. km, respectively. The area between
one end boundary which has 0.75 cm rainfall and 1 cm
isohyet was 120 sq. km and the other end boundary which
has precipitation of 5.5 cm and isohyet of 5 cm was 175 sq.
km. Find average precipitation.

Solution

P
(average)
= (P
1
A
1
+ P
2
A
2
+ ...........+ P
n
A
n
)/A
= 3271.25/1000 = 3.27 cm
Isohyet No Isohyetal
precipitation (cm)
Average of precipitation
of two consecutive
isohyets (cm)
Area enclosed
between two
isohyets
(sq km)
Volume
(x10
4
m)
Boundary 0.75
0.875 (for isohyet and
boundary)
boundary)
105.00
1 1 1.5 105 157.50
2 2 2.5 230 575.00
3 3 3.5 150 525.00
4 4 4.5 220 990.00
5 5
5.25 (for isohyet and
boundary)
175 918.75
Boundary 5.5
1000.00 3271.25
Example : From the isohyetal map shown in Fig. below find
out average precipitation.
Solution : The isohyets are drawn on the topographic map by
interpolating rainfall depths at given stations. Once isohyets are drawn,
the area enclosed between consecutive isohyets is determined either by
planimeter or other suitable more precise method.

Mean Precipitation Depth = Volume/Area
= 699.54x10
6
x10/16941.60x10
6
= 41.29 mm
Isohyte value (mm) Av. Isohyte Value
(mm)
Area Between
Consecutive Isohytes
(km)
Volume (x10
6
m)
Boundary and 25 25.0 310.53 7.76
25 and 30 27.5 2220.71 61.07
30 and 35 32.5 2968.38 96.47
35 and 40 37.5 2231.86 83.69
40 and 45 42.5 2303.52 97.90
45 and 50 47.5 2731.90 129.77
50 and 55 52.5 2689.70 141.21
55 and Boundary 55 1484.99 81.67
Total 16,941.60 699.54
References cited
Hydrology for Engineers by Linsely, Kohler, Paulhus
Applied Hydrology by Dr. Abdur Razzaq Ghumman
Wikipedia

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