As shown on the chart below, when nondestructive testing produces an indication, the indication is subject to interpretation as false, nonrelevant

or relevant. If it has been interpreted as relevant, the necessary subsequent evaluation will result in the decision to accept or reject the material. With the exception of accept and reject, which retain the meaning found in most dictionaries.

Tensile testing:Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a fundamental materials science test in which a sample is subjected to uniaxial tension until failure. The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an application, for quality control, and to predict how a material will react under other types of forces. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area. From these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.[

Universal Testing Machine

A tensile specimen is a standardized sample cross-section. It has two shoulders and a gauge (section) in between. The shoulders are large so they can be readily gripped, whereas the gauge section has a smaller cross-section so that the deformation and failure can occur in this area.
In large castings and forgings it is common to add extra material, which is designed to be removed from the casting so that test specimen can be made from it. These specimen not be exact representation of the whole work piece because the grain structure may be different throughout. In smaller work pieces or when critical parts of the casting must be tested, a work piece may be sacrificed to make the test specimens.[6] For work pieces that are machined from bar stock, the test specimen can be made from the same piece as the bar stock.

A Tensile Testing Specimen

Various Methods of Gripping a Test Specimen

Various shoulder styles for tensile specimens. Keys A through C are for round specimens, whereas keys D and E are for flat specimens. Key: A. B. C. D. E. A threaded shoulder for use with a threaded grip A round shoulder for use with serrated grips A butt end shoulder for use with a split collar A flat shoulder for used with serrated grips A flat shoulder with a through hole for a pinned grip

Equipment:The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is the universal testing machine. This type of machine has two crossheads; one is adjusted for the length of the specimen and the other is driven to apply tension to the test specimen. There are two types: hydraulic powered and electromagnetically powered machines. The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test specimen being tested. There are three main parameters: force capacity, speed, and precision and accuracy. Force capacity refers to the fact that the machine must be able to generate enough force to fracture the specimen. The machine must be able to apply the force quickly or slowly enough to properly mimic the actual application. Finally, the machine must be able to accurately and precisely measure the gauge length and forces applied; for instance, a large machine that is designed to measure long elongations may not work with a brittle material that experiences

Alignment of the test specimen in the testing machine is critical, because if the specimen is misaligned, either at an angle or offset to one side, the machine will exert a bending force on the specimen. This is especially bad for brittle materials, because it will dramatically skew the results. This situation can be minimized by using spherical seats or U-joints between the grips and the test machine.[5] A misalignment is indicated when running the test if the initial portion of the stress-strain curve is curved and not linear.[8] The strain measurements are most commonly measured with an extensometer, but strain gauges are also frequently used on small test specimen or when Poisson's ratio is being measured.[5] Newer test machines have digital time, force, and elongation measurement systems consisting of electronic sensors connected to a data collection device (often a computer) and software to manipulate and output the data. However, analog machines continue to meet and exceed ASTM, NIST, and ASM metal tensile testing accuracy requirements, continuing to be used today.[citation needed] [edit]Process

The Brinell scale characterizes the indentation hardness of materials through the scale of penetration of an indenter, loaded on a material test-piece. It is one of several definitions of hardness in materials science. Proposed by Swedish engineer Johan August Brinell in 1900, it was the first widely used and standardised hardness test in engineering and metallurgy. The large size of indentation and possible damage to test-piece limits its usefulness. The typical test uses a 10 millimetres (0.39 in) diameter steel ball as an indenter with a 3,000 kgf (29 kN; 6,600 lbf) force. For softer materials, a smaller force is used; for harder materials, a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. The indentation is measured and hardness calculated as: where: P = applied force (kgf) D = diameter of indenter (mm) d = diameter of indentation (mm) The BHN can be converted into the ultimate tensile strength (UTS), although the relationship is dependent on the material, and therefore determined empirically. The relationship is based on Meyer's index (n) from Meyer's law. If Meyer's index is less than 2.2 then the ratio of UTS to BHN is 0.36. If Meyer's index is greater than 2.2, then the ratio increases.[1] BHN is designated by the most commonly used test standards (ASTM E10-12[2] and ISO 6506 1:2005[3]) as HBW (H from hardness, B from brinell and W from the material of the indenter, tungsten (wolfram) carbide). In former standards HB or HBS were used to refer to measurements made with steel indenters. HBW is calculated in both

Brinell hardness numbers Material Softwood (e.g., pine) Hardwood Hardness 1.6 HBS 10/100 2.67.0 HBS 1.6 10/100 5.0 HB (pure lead; alloyed lead typically can range from 5.0 HB to values in excess of 22.0 HB) 15 HB

Lead

Aluminium

Copper
Mild steel 188 (304) stainless steel annealed Glass Hardened tool steel Rhenium diboride

35 HB
120 HB 200 HB[4] 1550 HB 15001900 HB 4600 HB

Note: Standard test conditions unless otherwise state

Standards International (ISO) and European (CEN) Standard EN ISO 6506-1:2005: Metallic materials Brinell hardness test Part 1: test method EN ISO 6506-2:2005: Metallic materials Brinell hardness test Part 2: verification and calibration of testing machine EN ISO 6506-3:2005: Metallic materials Brinell hardness test Part 3: calibration of reference blocks EN ISO 6506-4:2005: Metallic materials Brinell hardness test Part 4: Table of hardness values US standard (ASTM International) ASTM E10-12: Standard method for Brinell hardness of metallic materials.

Rockwell Scale:he Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on the indentation hardness of a material. The Rockwell test determines the hardness by measuring the depth of penetration of an indenter under a large load compared to the penetration made by a preload.[1] There are different scales, denoted by a single letter, that use different loads or indenters. The result is a dimensionless number noted as HRA, where A is the scale letter. When testing metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength.[2] This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers.[citation needed]

Operation:-

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the application of a minor load followed by a major load, and then noting the depth of penetration, vis a vis, hardness value directly from a dial, in which a harder material gives a higher number. The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness measurement techniques. It is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. Its commercial popularity arises from its speed, reliability, robustness, resolution and small area of indentation. In order to get a reliable reading the thickness of the test-piece should be at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.[9] Also, readings should be taken from a flat perpendicular surface, because convex surfaces give lower readings. A correction factor can be used if the hardness of a convex surface is to be measured.[10]

Scales and Values

There are several alternative scales, the most commonly used being the "B" and "C" scales. Both express hardness as an arbitrary dimensionless number.

Various Rockwell scales[11] Abbreviati Scale Load on A B C D E F G HRA HRB HRC HRD HRE HRF HRG 60 kgf 100 kgf 150 kgf 100 kgf 100 kgf 60 kgf 150 kgf

Indenter 120 diamond cone

1 -inch-diameter 16

Use Tungsten carbide Aluminium, brass, and soft steels Harder steels >B100

(1.588 mm)

steel sphere 120 diamond cone 120 diamond cone

1 -inch-diameter 8

(3.175 mm) steel (1.588 mm) (1.588 mm)

sphere
1 -inch-diameter 16

steel sphere
1 -inch-diameter 16

steel sphere

Significance and Use Bend tests for ductility provide a simple way to evaluate the quality of materials by their ability to resist cracking or other surface irregularities during one continuous bend. No reversal of the bend force shall be employed when conducting these tests. The type of bend test used determines the location of the forces and constraints on the bent portion of the specimen, ranging from no direct contact to continuous contact. The test can terminate at a given angle of bend over a specified radius or continue until the specimen legs are in contact. The bend angle can be measured while the specimen is under the bending force (usually when the semiguided bend test is employed), or after removal of the force as when performing a free-bend test. Product requirements for the material being tested determine the method used.

Materials with an as-fabricated cross section of rectangular, round, hexagonal, or similar defined shape can be tested in full section to evaluate their bend properties by using the procedures outlined in these test methods, in which case relative width and thickness requirements do not apply.

1. Scope 1.1 These test methods cover bend testing for ductility of materials. Included in the procedures are four conditions of constraint on the bent portion of the specimen; a guidedbend test using a mandrel or plunger of defined dimensions to force the mid-length of the specimen between two supports separated by a defined space; a semi-guided bend test in which the specimen is bent, while in contact with a mandrel, through a specified angle or to a specified inside radius (r) of curvature, measured while under the bending force; a free-bend test in which the ends of the specimen are brought toward each other, but in which no transverse force is applied to the bend itself and there is no contact of the concave inside surface of the bend with other material; a bend and flatten test, in which a transverse force is applied to the bend such that the legs make contact with each other over the length of the specimen.

1.2 After bending, the convex surface of the bend is examined for evidence of a crack or surface irregularities. If the specimen fractures, the material has failed the test. When complete fracture does not occur, the criterion for failure is the number and size of cracks or surface irregularities visible to the unaided eye occurring on the convex surface of the specimen after bending, as specified by the product standard. Any cracks within one thickness of the edge of the specimen are not considered a bend test failure. Cracks occurring in the corners of the bent portion shall not be considered significant unless they exceed the size specified for corner cracks in the product standard. 1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. Inch-pound values given in parentheses were used in establishing test parameters and are for information only. 1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

ASTM Standards E6 Terminology Relating to Methods of Mechanical Testing E8/E8M Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials E18 Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness of Metallic Materials E190 Test Method for Guided Bend Test for Ductility of Welds