Critical Theory

By Jessica Studer, Kari Carlson, and Chris Logan

Roots of Critical Theory

This school of thought emerged from the
work of German theorists collectively known as The Frankfurt School. The roots of Critical Theory are directly centered in the creation of The Institute for Social Research and the social thinkers who promoted the Idealism of Karl Marx.

Institute for Social Research

The first Marxist oriented research school was in Europe Scholars at school developed a critical theory of society
called kritisch Therorie which was designed for a specific approach to interpreting Marxism This approach sought to revise Marxs. Critique of capitalism and the idea that revolution was the best way to change the social and political structure since his death The first president of the school was Carl Grundberg, who wanted Scientific Marxism Max Horkheimer, the second president, wanted a more philosophical and less dogmatic approach which was open to diverse intellectual currents The dilemma that the first generation of Critical Theorists had to reconcile was Marxs emancipatory dream with the stark reality of modern society as conceptualized by Max Weber (pg. 232)

Institute for Social Research Cont.

The school was restrained by Adolf Hitler and had

its Jewish members exiled School was relocated to Columbia university in 1934 The term Critical Theory was coined in 1937 (this concept was initially a type of code which, while differentiating is adherents from prevailing forms of orthodoxy, also tended to veil radical comments in an environment that was hostile to anything remotely associated with Marxism) In 1953 school had re-established in post Germany where they were still subject to attack in press and academia

G.W.F. Hegel (1931-)

Hegels Phenomenology Of The Mind
gave two important influences on Critical Theory. First, the critique which took form of internal or immanent examination of various sources of deception, illusion, and distortion the mind goes through on the journey to absolute knowledge. Second, the belief that human history expresses an immanent telos, which is the liberation of individual and species from a system of constraints of the peoples own minds. A key component to understanding Hegel is that he assumes that humans are driven by a common interest in freedom.

Georg (Gyorgy) Lukacs (18851971)

His publication History and Class
Consciousness argued that
subjectivity is annihilated by commodity production Blended Marxs ideas of fetishism of commodities with the belief that rationality is penetrating more spheres of modern life It is said that Lukacs analyses of alienation, commodity fetishism, subjectivity, consciousness, and spontaneous action are the theoretical bridge to Critical theory

Max Horkheimer (1895-1973)

Chair of social philosophy and then
director of The Institute for Social Research Institute under his supervision was oriented to developing social theory on an interdisciplinary basis. He wanted this theory to benefit from both the reflective capacity of philosophy and the rigorous procedures of the individual sciences Saw society as a totality that was continuously restructuring itself which resulted in the idea of social absolute or a complete or perfect state of social phenomenon being criticized

Horkheimer Cont.
Endorsed the idea that there is no absolute truth of

reality Thought Manheims Sociology of knowledge to be practically no less than theoretically wrongheaded and in his essay Traditional and Critical Theory distinguishes itself from Manheim and emphasizes a dialectical representation of Marxs critique of political economy which was to be the analytical framework for critical theory Maintained the idea that there are no general criteria for critical theory as a whole since it depended on a repetition of events, Horkheimer said critical theory aims to asses the breach between ideas and reality

Theodor Wisengaurd-Adorno (1903-1969)

Attempted to establish a critical

social consciousness Argued that objects exist for us through conceptuality In Negative Dialectics, he insisted that the dialectic approach is not a middle point between absolutism and reality and was against the idea that critical theory should merely criticize one point of view in favor of another

Defining Critical Theory

There is no clear cut definition and the
term itself is confused with literary criticism and other approaches to social theory could be consider critical Critical theory offers a multidisciplinary approach to society, is subject to change but is rooted in the dialectical tradition of Marx and Hegel

 Argues to have six Marxian tenets associated with

critical theory which are:
2.

Critical Theory Cont.

1. We lie in a society dominated by the capitalist mode of production,

3. 4.
5. 6.

and a society based on exchange principals pf value and profit The commodity character of products is not simply determined by their exchange value, but by their being abstractly exchanged though labor Capitalist society ensures fetishism reification Capitalism is not a harmonious social world. Contradictions between socially generated illusions and actuality lead to potential crisis The free market is progressively replaced by the oligarchies and monopolistic mass production of standardized goods The progressive rise on the organic composition of capital per worker exacerbates the inherently unstable accumulation processes. In order to sustain the process its protagonists utilize all means of available including imperialist expansion

Hebert Marcuse (1898-1979)

Background
Born in Berlin to a prosperous Jewish family After serving in German Army in WWI, became associated with the Social Democratic Party Left party in 1919 in protest over betrayal of the proletariat Went on to study philosophy at the universities of Berlin and Freiburg In December 1942 joined the Office of War Information as a senior analyst in the Bureau of Intelligence Taught at Columbia and Harvard While there began research which led to writing of Gained world status during 1960s as a philosopher, social theorist, and political activist Career represents a constant attempt to examine, defend, and reconstruct Marxist enterprise

Soviet Marxism

Concepts and Contributions

Critical Theory Stated that critical theory is a process of bringing
consciousness potentialities that have emerged within the maturing historical situation Is a theory guided by political practice Marcuses critical theory was influenced by Hegel and Marx Critical theory of society is essentially linked with materialism There are two basic elements linking materialism to correct social theory:
1. Concern with human happiness 2. Conviction that it can be attained through a transformation of the material conditions of existence

Combining thoughts of Hegel and Marx, he concluded

that history is the arena is which humans seek the freedom to manifest universal rationality

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

Technological Rationality An extension of Webers idea of rationalization Defined term in his work, One-Dimensional Man Argued that modern industrial society was dominated by a technological rationality, with the working middle class as its vocal supporter and defender Concerned that the cost of material satisfaction was the loss of individual freedoms and liberties Makes two claims:
1. The workers of industrial society are suffering from false consciousness 2. The workers should not be happy with material satisfaction but should be striving for some unidentified nonmaterial satisfaction

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

The New Left Radical writings were a perfect match for his

place in time He was looked upon as the guru of the New Left Gave lectures and advice to student radicals Used the media to spread to word of Marxian theory, revolutionary vision, and libertarian socialism

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

Revolution Entrenched in the Marxist tradition is the
necessity for revolution Argued that Marxian concept of revolution implies continuity in change Proposed a global revolution where capitalism is replaced by socialism The revolutionists that would challenge corporate capitalism are concentrated at two opposite poles of society:
1. The ghetto population 2. The middle class intelligentsia

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

Sexual Revolution In favor of the sexual revolution Against those who tried to impose sexual codes
of conduct on others in the name of religion, especially those who would invade the realm of individual privacy For Marcuse, sexual repression was more than just another evil capitalism; it represented the bourgeois concept of love In Negations, he condemned the bourgeois era as an attempt to isolate individuals from their natural drives Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, he was one of the most influential radical theorists

Jurgen Habermas (1929-)

Background Born in Gummersbach in 1929 Grew up during Nazi regime and WWII: Two

influences that have a profound effect on his thinking and writings Studied philosophy at Gottingen, Zurich, and Bonn, where he earned his doctorate in 1954 In 1964 he became a professor of philosophy at Frankfurt Perhaps most well known of second generation of critical theorists He was influenced by the works of Marx, Weber, and the early members of the Frankfurt School Writings are steeped in the German tradition

 Critical Theory In his article The Tasks of a Critical Theory he stated that 1.

Concepts and Contributions

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

the work of the Institute for Social Research was basically dominated by six themes: The Forms of Integration in Postliberal Societies: Whether in a democracy or totalitarian regimes Gamily Socialization and Ego Development: The structural change of the bourgeois nuclear family and the weakening of the authoritarian position of the father Mass Media and Mass Culture: The development of a culture industry for the manipulative control of consciousness The Social Psychology behind Cessation of Protest: Political consciousness of workers and employees The Theory of Art: The arts as the preferred object of an ideology The Critique of Positivisim and Science: Science as a tool of the bourgeoisie

Concepts and Contributions

Critical Theory Cont. His critical theory was inspired by classical Greek
and German philosophy, which stressed the inseparability of truth and virtue, of facts and values, and of theory and practice Wanted a society where people are free to assemble and communicate openly Communication and understanding of language are the keys to understanding and comprehending knowledge Described the ideal speech situation as one that is un-coerced, free for all people, and in which all people are treated equally

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

Communication Theory Concerned with reformulating Marxian theory in the light of
twentieth-century social changes Expands Marxs conception of humanity by adding language to work as a distinct feature of species-being To escape the philosophical historical materialism of Marxist thought, he proposed that a theory cannot be tied to concrete ideals of human life Instead, it must orient itself to the range of learning processes that are opened at any given time The use of language as a significant aspect of human development led Habermas to concentrate on how undistorted communication might lay the foundation for the emancipation of individuals

Concepts and Contribtions

Communication Theory Cont. Distorted communication is similar to Marxs

false consciousness Use of undistorted communication reveals the influence of Freudian psychoanalysis on his communication theory Argued that individuals life worlds are influenced by constant interaction with others and with societys social structures

 Rationality and Modernity Critical of Western industrial democracies for their reduction of

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

the human world to some form of economic efficiency Believed that rationality-the ability to think logically and analytically-is more than a strategic calculation of how to achieve some chosen end; it is a form of communicative action Rational behavior serves the individuals best interest and is a key ingredient in understanding others during social behavior Ideas of rationality led him to explain modernity The concepts of rationality and modernity come together in his examination of the life world Also critical of scientism-identifying knowledge with sciencebecause of its relation to positivism Believed that critical theory should be a critique of knowledge, opposed positivism because it attempted to objective knowledge

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

Democracy Democracy must be seen first and foremost as a
process that results when certain kind of social interaction prevails Democracy should be seen as a particular way by which citizens make collective and rational decisions Envisioned a deliberate democracy where a governments laws and institutions would be a reflection of free and open public discussion According to Habermas, modern democracies of the West are dominated by political legitimation

Douglas Kellner (1943-)

Background Born in 1943 Received his Ph.D. from Columbia

University in 1973 Known for his systematic and critical review of television in the U.S. He believes that the media, television in particular, have long served the interests of the powerful

Concepts and Contributions

Critical Theory Kellners critical theory is based on the premise that we
have not moved into a postmodern, or postindustrial age, but rather that capitalism continues to reign supreme, as it did in the heyday of critical theory. Kellner described technocapitalism as a capitalist society structured so that technical and scientific knowledge, automation, computers, and advanced technology play such a significant role in the process of production that they parallel the role of human labor power in early capitalism. Kellner does not endeavor to develop a full-scale theory of techno-capitalism. His main point is that although it has changed dramatically, capitalism remains in the contemporary world

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

Media and Culture Kellners ideas on the effect of media on culture are influenced by the
world of Baudrillard. His theory of a new, postmodern society rests on a key assumption that the media constitute a new realm of experience and a new stage of history and type of society Kellner provided statistics that demonstrate how prevalent television is in contemporary society: In excess of 750 million TV sets in more than 160 countries are watched by 2.5 billion people per day. Nearly every home in the U.S. has a TV set that is turned on for more than 7 hours per day He was concerned that television is a threat to democracy Believes that television contributes to social integration and implies that democratized media could be the basis for a revitalized public sphere. Concluded that television has worked increasingly to further conservative hegemony. In so doing, television has helped produce a crisis in democracy The advent of cable television in the 1970s was directly responsible for the increase in public access programs, channels for government, and educational programming

Concepts and Contributions Cont.

Postmodernism Postmodern thought extends to many disciplines,
most notably art, but has also crept into sociological discourse since the mid-1980s Kellner noted that the primary methods of postmodernism are deconstruction, reversal, and inversion. This implies that the theorist must question the taken-for-granted world, the rules of the game, and the claims to authority found in a society. Kellner viewed postmodernism as a new stage of society, a break with the previous social order The postmodern attitude is reflected in expressionist art

Relevancy
Critical theory is generally about the role of power in
social relations Critical theory has existed since the formation of the Institute for Social Research at Frankfurt University in 1923 Contemporary critical theorists have increasingly turned their attention to the media and other forms of entertainment in their examination of modern culture Critical theory cannot be characterized by a particular set of methodological techniques and theoretical propositions; however, it is still a coherent approach to the social world that is separate from other types of sociology and Marxism

 The first criticism of critical theory is that it reproduces idealist

Criticisms of Critical Theory

(utopian) positions The second criticism is that critical theory shows undue concern about philosophical and theoretical problems The third criticism of critical theory is its preoccupation with negativity The fourth criticism of critical theory is the claim that it developed from a purely academic setting and thus was isolated from working-class politics (add to this, the fact that Marxs conception of the working class as a revolutionary force is untrue) and became increasingly embroiled in abstract issues and second-order discourse The fifth criticism leveled against critical theory is that it is a historical (critical theorists have examined a variety of events without paying much attention to their historical and comparative contexts)

Criticisms of Critical Theory Cont.

Postmodern critical theory is the first narrative to pose a
possible utopian future not as a determinate outcome of nature-like social laws but rather as one conceivable discursive accomplishment among many Critical theory can either be a museum piece or a living medium of political self-expression (Agger, 1976:19) Critical theory addresses the relations among schooling, education, culture, society, economy, and governance Critical theory has also been applied to issues related to crime and delinquency In addition , critical theory draws its orientation from a broad range of disciplines, including linguistics, psychology, sociology, philosophy, and Marxism (Groves and Sampson, 1986:538)