The Wireless Channel (2)

Wireless Communication
www.ee.ui.ac.id/wasp
Review
What we discussed last lecture:
The large-scale fading because of path loss
The empirical path loss formulas
Today, we will discuss about the small-scale fading
and the statistical models represent it
Introduction
The small-scale fading is usually called fading
It is caused by multipath signal, so it is also called
multipath fading
Multipath signal causes constructive and destructive
addition of the received signal
Introduction
If a single pulse is transmitted in the multipath
channel, it will yield a train of pulses with delay time



Delay spread ( ): the time delay between the
arrival of the first received signal component and the
last received signal component associated with a
single transmitted pulse
LOS
Reflected components
d
T
Introduction
If the delay spread is small compared to the (1/BW),
then there is little time spreading in the received
signal
If the delay spread is relatively large, there is little
time spreading of the received signal, i.e. signal
distortion
Multipath channel is also time-varying that means
either the transmitter or the receiver is moving
It also causes the location of the reflectors will
change over time
We will limit the model to be narrowband fading, i.e.
the BW is small compared to (1/delay spread)
Introduction
Physical factors influencing fading:
Multipath propagation
Speed of the mobile
Speed of surrounding objects
The transmision bandwidth of the signal
Review of Doppler Shift
The received signal may experience Doppler shift







If the receiver is moving towards the transmitter, the
Doppler freq is positive, otherwise it is negative
v eff
Example
Consider a transmitter which radiates a carrier of
1850 MHz. For a vehicle moving 26.82 mps,
compute the received carrier frequency if the mobile
is moving:
Directly towards the transmitter
Directly away from the transmitter
In a direction which is perpendicular to the direction of
arrival of the transmitted signal
Carrier freq = 1850 MHz
Wavelength =
Vehicle speed = 26.82 m/s
Vehicle moving towards the transmitter means
positive Doppler frequency

Vehicle moving towards the transmitter means
negative Doppler frequency

Vehicle is moving perpendicular means
Solution
8
6
3 10
0.162
1850 10
c
c
m
f

= = =

26.82
1850 cos0 1850.00016
0.162
c d
f f f MHz = + = + =
26.82
1850 cos0 1849.999834
0.162
c d
f f f MHz = = =
90 u =
26.82
1850 cos90 1850
0.162
c d
f f f MHz = + = + =
Doppler Spread
Doppler spread is given by


Where, and

E.g. If the mobile is moving at 60 kph and f = 900
MHz, the the Doppler spread is
2 1
:
s
D D D =
1
fv
D
c
=
2
fv
D
c
= +
6
8
2
900 10 16.67
2 100
3 10
s
fv fv fv
D
c c c
Hz
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .

= =

Time-Varying Channel Impulse Response

We have already known that the transmitted signal is

Then, the received signal in multipath channel is


n = 0 corresponds to the LOS path
N(t) is the number of resolvable multipath
components
is corresponding delay
is Doppler phase shift
is amplitude
( ) ( )
{ }
( ) { } ( ) ( ) { } ( )
2
cos 2 sin 2
c
j f t
c c
s t u t e u t f t u t f t
t
t t =9 =9
Time-Varying Channel Impulse Response
The n-th resolvable multipath component may
correspond to the multipath associated with a single
reflector or multiple reflectors clustered together
Time-Varying Channel Impulse Response
If single reflector exists, the amplitude is based on
the path loss and shadowing, its phase change
associated with delay and Doppler
phase shift of

If reflector cluster exists, two multipath components
with delay and are resolvable if
If the criteria is not satisfied, then it is nonresolvable
since

The nonresolvable components are combined into a
single multipath component with delay and
an amplitude and phase corresponding to the sum of
different components
( )
( ) 2
c n
j f t
n
t e
t t
t

( )
2
N N
D D
t
f t dt | t =
}
1
t
2
t
1
1 2 u
B t t

( ) ( )
1 2
u t u t t t ~
1 2
t t t ~ ~
Time-Varying Channel Impulse Response
The amplitude of the summed signal will undergo
fast variations due to the constructive and
destructive combining of the nonresolvable multipath
components
Wideband channels have resolvable multipath
components the parameters change slowly
Narrowband channels tend to have nonresolvable
multipath components the parameters change
quickly
Time-Varying Channel Impulse Response
We can simplify by letting

The received signal is then


The received signal is obtained by convolving the
baseband input signal with equivalent lowpass time-
varying channel impulse response of the channel,
and then upconverting the carrier frequency
( )
r t
( ) ( )
2
n
n c n D
t f t | t t | =
Time-Varying Channel Impulse Response
The represents the equivalent lowpass
response of the channel at time t to an impulse at
time



( )
, c t t
t t
Parameters of Mobile Multipath Channels
Time dispersion parameters
Coherence bandwidth
Doppler spread and coherence time
Time Dispersion Parameters
The time dispersive properties of wideband multipath
channels are most commonly quantified by their
mean excess delay and rms delay spread
The mean excess delay:


The rms delay spread is the square root of the
second central moment of the power delay profile
( )
( )
2
2
k k k k
k k
k k
k k
a P
a P
t t t
t
t
= =


( )
2
2
t
o t t =
( )
( )
2 2 2
2
2
k k k k
k k
k k
k k
a P
a P
t t t
t
t
= =


Time Dispersion Parameters
The delays are measured relative to the first
detectable signal arriving at the receiver at
The maximum excess delay (X dB) of the power
delay profile is defined to be the time delay during
which multipath energy falls to X dB below the
maximum.
The maximum excess delay sometimes called
excess delay spread, which can be expressed as
Where is the maximum delay at which a multipath
component is within X dB of the strongest arriving
multipath signal and is the first arriving signal
0 t =
0 X
t t
X
t
0
t
Time Dispersion Parameters
Coherence Bandwidth
Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the
range of frequencies over which the channel can be
considered flat
Flat fading is a channel which passes all spectral
components with approximately equal gain and
linear phase
The coherence bandwidth can be expressed as
(above 90% correlation)

(above 50% correlation)
1
5
c
B
t
o
~
1
50
c
B
t
o
~
Example
Compute the mean excess delay, rms delay spread,
and the maximum excess delay for the following
power delay profile
Estimate the 50% coherence bandwidth of the
channel
Solution
Using the definition of maximum excess delay (10
dB), it can be seen that
The mean excess delay:


The second moment

The rms delay spread:

The coherence bandwidth:
10
4
dB
s t =
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )
1 5 0.1 1 0.1 2 0.01 0
4.38
0.01 0.1 0.1 1
s t
+ + +
= =
+ + +
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
( )
2 2 2 2
2 2
1 5 0.1 1 0.1 2 0.01 0
21.07
0.01 0.1 0.1 1
s t
+ + +
= =
+ + +
( )
2
21.07 4.38 1.37 s
t
o = =
( )
1 1
146
5 5 1.37
c
B kHz
s
t
o
= = =
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
Doppler spread has been discussed before
The coherence time is related with Doppler spread
(Doppler shift)
0.423
c
T
v

=
Types of Small-Scale Fading
Flat Fading
If the mobile radio channel has a constant gain and
linear phase response over a bandwidth which is
greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal,
then the received signal will undergo flat fading
Flat Fading
Flat fading channels are also known as amplitude
varying channels
It is also sometimes referred to as narrowband
channels
The most common amplitude distributions are:
Rayleigh, Rician, and Nakagami
Summarize: a signal undergoes flat fading if
s c
B B
s
T
t
o
Frequency Selective Fading
If the channel has a constant-gain and linear phase
response over a bandwidth that is smaller than the
bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel
creates frequency selective fading on the received
signal
Frequency Selective Fading
The received signal includes multiple versions of the
transmited waveform which are attenuated and
delayed in time, and hence the received signal is
distorted
Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion
of the transmitted symbols within the channel
Thus, the channel induces intersymbol interference
(ISI)
The modeling for this kind of channel is more difficult
since each multipath signal must be modeled and
channel must be considered to be a linear filter
The common model: 2-ray Rayleigh fading

Frequency Selective Fading
It is sometimes called wideband channels since the
bandwidth of the signal is wider than the bandwidth
of the channel impulse response
Summarize: a signal undergoes frequency selective
fading if
s c
B B >
s
T
t
o <
Fast Fading
In a fast fading channel, the channel impulse
response changes rapidly within the symbol duration
In other words, the coherence time of the channel is
smaller than the symbol period of the transmitted
signal
This causes frequency dispersion (time selective
fading) due to Doppler spread, which lead to signal
distortion
Signal distortion due to fast fading increases with
increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth
of the transmitted signal
Summarize: a signal undergoes fast fading if
s c
T T >
s D
B B <
Slow Fading
In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse
response changes at a rate much slower than the
transmitted signal
The channel may be assumed to be static over one
or several reciprocal bandwidth interval
The Doppler spread of the channel is much less than
the bandwidth of the baseband signal
Summarize: a signal undergoes slow fading if
s c
T T
s D
B B
Summary
Remarks
When a channel is specified as a fast or slow fading
channel, it does not specify whether the channel is flat
fading or frequency selective
Fast fading only deals with the rate of change of the
channel due to motion
In flat fading channel, we can approximate the impulse
response to be simply delta function
A flat fading, fast fading channel is a channel in which the
amplitude of the delta function varies faster that the rate
of the transmitted baseband signal
A frequency selective, fast fading channel, the
amplitudes, phases, and time delays of any one of the
multipath components vary faster than the rate of change
of the transmitted signal
Rayleigh Fading
The Rayleigh distribution is commonly used to
describe the statistical time varying nature of the
received envelope of a flat fading signal
Rayleigh distributed signal:
Rayleigh Fading
The Rayleigh distribution has pdf




The probability that the envelope of the received
signal does not exceed a specified value R is
the rms value of the received voltage signal before envelope detection o =
2
the time-average power of the received signal before envelope detection o =
Rayleigh Fading
The mean value of Rayleigh distribution is


The variance of the Rayleigh distribution (represent
the ac power)


The median value is

The median is often used in practice
Rayleigh Fading
The corresponding Rayleigh pdf is
Level Crossing and Fading Statistics
The level crossing rate (LCR) is defined as the
expected rate at which the Rayleigh fading envelope,
normalized to the local rms signal level, crosses a
specified level in a positive-going direction
The number of level crossing per second is given by


Where
is time derivative of r(t) (the slope)
is the joint density function of r and
at r = R
( )
2
0
, 2
R D
N rp R r dr f e

t

= =
}
( )
, p R r
r
r
rms
R R =
Example
For a Rayleigh fading signal, compute the positive-
going level crossing rate for when the maximum
Doppler frequency is 20 Hz
What is the maximum velocity of the mobile for this
Doppler frequency if the carrier frequency is 900
MHz?
1 =
Solution
Use the equation for LCR


Use equation of Doppler frequency
( )( )
1
2 20 1 18.44
R
N e t

= =
( )
20 1 3 6.66 /
D
v f m s = = =
Level Crossing and Fading Statistics
The average fade duration is defined as the average
period of time for which the received signal is below
a specified level R.
For a Rayleigh fading signal, it is given by





So, the average fade duration can be expressed as
| |
1
Pr
R
r R
N
t = s
| |
( )
( )
2
0
1
Pr
1 exp
i
i
R
r R
T
p r dr
t

s =
= =

}
2
1
2
D
e
f

t
t

=
Example
Find the average fade duration for threshold levels
when the Doppler frequency is 200 Hz

Solution
Average fade duration is
0.01 =
( )
2
0.01
1
19.9
0.01 200 2
e
s t
t

= =
Rician Fading Distribution
When there is a dominant stationary (nonfading)
signal component present, such as line-of-sight
propagation path, the small-scale fading envelope
distribution is Rician
Random multipath componnets arriving at different
angles are superimposed on a stationary dominant
signal
The Rician distribution is given by
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2
0
2 2
for 0, 0
0 for 0
r A
r Ar
p r e I A r
r
o
o o
+

| |
= > >
|
\ .
= <
Rician Fading Distribution
The Rician distribution is described in terms of a
parameter K




As we have Rayleigh fading
As we have no fading, channel has no
multipath, only LOS component
2
2
2
A
K
o
=
( )
2
2
10log
2
A
K dB
o
=
0 K =
K =
Rician Fading Distribution
The Rician pdf is
Conclusions
Small-scale fading is variation of signal strength over
distances of the order of the carrier wavelength
It is due to constructive and destructive interference
of multipath
Key parameters:
Doppler spread coherence time
Delay spread coherence bandwidth
Statistical small-scale fading: Rayleigh fading and
Rician fading flat fading