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CNS
Consists of:
Receives input from sensory neurons. Directs activity of motor neurons. Association neurons maintain homeostasis in the internal environment.
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Embryonic Development
Groove appears in ectoderm to fuse to form neural tube by 20th day after conception. Neural tube eventually forms the CNS. During 5th week, modified:
Forebrain: telencephalon and diencephalon. Midbrain: unchanged. Hindbrain: metencephalon and myelencephalon. Neural crest forms ganglia of PNS.
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Embryonic Development
(continued)
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Embryonic Development
(continued)
Telencephalon grows disproportionately forming 2 the hemispheres of the cerebrum. Ventricles and central canal become filled with cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). CNS composed of gray and white matter.
Gray matter consists of neuron cell bodies and dendrites. White matter (myelin) consists of axon tracts.
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Cerebrum
Only structure of the telencephalon. Largest portion of brain (80% mass). Responsible for higher mental functions. Corpus callosum:
Major tract of axons that functionally interconnects right and left cerebral hemispheres.
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Cerebrum
(continued)
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Cerebral Cortex
Frontal lobe:
Body regions with the greatest number of motor innervation are represented by largest areas of motor cortex.
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Cerebral Cortex
(continued)
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Cerebral Cortex
(continued)
Parietal lobe:
Primary area responsible for perception of somatesthetic sensation. Body regions with highest densities of receptors are represented by largest areas of sensory cortex.
Contain auditory centers that receive sensory fibers from cochlea. Interpretation and association of auditory and visual information.
Temporal lobe:
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Cerebral Cortex
(continued)
Occipital Lobe:
Primary area responsible for vision and coordination of eye movements. Implicated in memory encoding. Integration of sensory information with visceral responses. Coordinated cardiovascular response to stress.
Insula:
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Complex computer manipulations of data obtained from x-ray absorption by tissues of different densities.
Soft tissue.
Brain function.
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
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EEG Patterns
Alpha:
10-12 cycles/sec.
Beta:
13-25 cycles/sec.
Theta:
5-8 cycles/sec.
Delta:
Common during sleep and awake infant. In awake adult indicate brain damage.
1-5 cycles/sec.
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Dreams occur. Low-amplitude, high-frequency oscillations. Similar to wakefulness (beta waves). High-amplitude, low-frequency waves (delta waves). Superimposed on these are sleep spindles:
Non-Rem (resting):
Waxing and waning bursts of 7-14 cycles/sec. Last for 1-3 sec.
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Masses of gray matter composed of neuronal cell bodies located deep within white matter. Contain:
Corpus striatum:
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Cerebral Lateralization
Cerebral dominance:
Left hemisphere:
Right hemisphere:
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Language
Brocas area: Involves articulation of speech. In damage, comprehension of speech in unimpaired. Wernickes area: Involves language comprehension. In damage, language comprehension is destroyed, but speech is rapid without any meaning. Angular gyrus: Center of integration of auditory, visual, and somatesthetic information. Damage produces aphasias.
Arcuate fasciculus:
To speak intelligibly, words originating in Wernickes area must be sent to Brocas area.
Brocas area sends fibers to the motor cortex which directly controls the musculature of speech.
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Important in the neural basis of emotional states are hypothalamus and limbic system. Limbic system:
Group of forebrain nuclei and fiber tracts that form a ring around the brain stem.
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(continued)
Areas or the hypothalamus and limbic system are involved in feelings and behaviors. Aggression:
Fear:
Feeding:
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Memory
Short-term:
Hippocampus is critical component of memory. Acquisition of new information, facts and events requires both the medial temporal lobe and hippocampus.
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Long-Term Memory
Requires activation of genes, leading to protein synthesis and formation of new synaptic connections.
Visual memories lateralized to left hemisphere. Visuospatial information lateralized to right hemisphere. Involved in performing exact mathematical calculations.
Prefrontal lobes:
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Long-Term Potentiation
Synapses that are 1st stimulated at high frequency will subsequently exhibit increased excitability. Requires activation of the NMDA receptors for glutamate. Glutamate and glycine or D-serine binding and partial
depolarization are required for opening of channels for Ca2+ and Na+.
Binding of glutamate to NMDA receptors and simultaneous depolarization, open receptor channels for Ca2+.
Ca2+ causes long-term potentiation in postsynaptic neuron, release of NO from postsynaptic neuron.
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Cells that both renew themselves through mitosis and produce differentiated neurons and neuroglia.
Hippocampus has been shown to contain stem cells (required for long-term memory). Neurogenesis:
Indirect evidence that links neuogenesis in hippocampus with learning and memory.
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Thalamus:
Composes 4/5 of the diencephalon. Forms most of the walls of the 3rd ventricle. Acts as relay center through which all sensory information (except olfactory) passes to the cerebrum.
Intralaminar nuclei:
Epithalamus contains:
Choroid plexus where CSF is formed. Pineal gland which secretes melatonin.
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Hypothalamus
Contains neural centers for hunger, thirst, and body temperature. Contributes to the regulation of sleep, wakefulness, emotions, sexual arousal, anger, fear, pain, and pleasure. Stimulates hormonal release from anterior pituitary. Produces ADH and oxytocin. Coordinates sympathetic and parasympathetic reflexes.
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Pituitary Gland
Posterior pituitary:
Hypothalamus produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that are transported to anterior pituitary.
Regulate secretions of anterior hormones. Anterior pituitary: Regulates secretion of hormones of other endocrine glands.
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Midbrain
Contains:
Corpora quadrigemina:
Superior colliculi:
Inferior colliculi:
Cerebral peduncles:
Composed of ascending and descending fiber tracts. Required for motor coordination. Maintains connections with cerebrum and cerebellum.
Substantia nigra:
Red nucleus:
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Hindbrain
Metencephalon:
Pons:
Surface fibers connect to cerebellum, and deeper fibers are part of motor and sensory tracts. Contains several nuclei associated with cranial nerves V, VI, VII. Contains the apneustic and pneumotaxic respiratory centerss. Receives input from proprioceptors. Participates in coordination of movement. Necessary for motor learning, coordinating different joints during movement, and limb movements.
Cerebellum:
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Hindbrain
(continued)
Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata): All descending and ascending fiber tracts between spinal cord and brain must pass through the medulla.
Nuclei contained within the medulla include VIII, IX, X, XI, XII. Pyramids: Fiber tracts cross to contralateral side.
Vasomotor center:
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Reticular Formation
Reticular Formation: Complex network of nuclei and nerve fibers within medulla, pons, midbrain, thalamus and hypothalamus. Functions as the reticular activating system (RAS).
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Convey sensory information from cutaneous receptors, proprioceptors and visceral receptors to cerebral cortex. Sensory fiber tract decussation may occur in medulla or spinal cord.
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Pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts descend directly without synaptic interruption from cerebral cortex to spinal cord.
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Cranial nerves:
2 pairs arise from neuron cell bodies in forebrain. 10 pairs arise from the midbrain and hindbrain.
Roman numerals refer to the order in which the nerves are positioned from front of the brain to the back.
Most are mixed nerves containing both sensory and motor fibers. 31 pairs grouped into 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, and l coccygeal. Mixed nerve that separates near the attachment of the nerve to spinal cord.
Spinal nerves:
Dorsal root composed of sensory fibers. Ventral root composed of motor fibers.
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Reflex Arc
Unconscious motor response to a sensory stimulus. Stimulation of sensory receptors evokes APs that are conducted into spinal cord.
Synapses with association neuron, which synapses with somatic motor neuron.