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Outline
State variables. State-space representation. Linear state-space equations. Nonlinear state-space equations. Linearization of state-space equations.
Input-output Description
The description is valid for a) time-varying systems: a , c , explicit functions of time. b) multi-input-multi-output (MIMO) systems: l inputoutput differential equations, l = # of outputs. c) nonlinear systems: differential equations include nonlinear terms.
i j
State Variables
To solve the differential equation we need (1) The system input u(t) for the period of interest. (2) A set of constant initial conditions. Minimal set of initial conditions: incomplete knowledge of the set prevents complete solution but additional initial conditions are not needed to obtain the solution. Initial conditions provide a summary of the History of the system up to the initial time.
Definitions
System State: minimal set of numbers {x (t), i = 1,2,...,n}, needed together with the input u(t), t [t ,t ) to uniquely determine the behavior of the system in the interval [t ,t ]. n = order of the system. State Variables: As t increases, the state of the system evolves and each of the numbers x (t) becomes a time variable. State Vector: vector of state variables
i 0 f 0 f i
Notation
Column vector bolded Row vector bolded and transposed x .
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Definitions
State Space: n-dimensional vector space where {x (t), i = 1,2,...,n} represent the coordinate axes State plane: state space for a 2nd order system
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Phase plane: special case where the state variables are proportional to the derivatives of the output. Phase variables: state variables in phase plane. State trajectories: Curves in state space State portrait: plot of state trajectories in the plane (phase portrait for the phase plane).
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Example 7.1
State for equation of motion of a point mass m driven by a force f y = displacement of the point mass.
State vector Phase Variables: 2nd = derivative of the first. Two first order differential equations
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1. First equation: from definitions of state variables. 2. Second equation: from equation of motion.
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Phase Portrait
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State Equations
Set of first order equations governing the state variables obtained from the input-output differential equation and the definitions of the state variables. In general, n state equations for a nth order system. The form of the state equations depends on the nature of the system (equations are time-varying for time-varying systems, nonlinear for nonlinear systems, etc.) State equations for linear time-invariant systems can also be obtained from their transfer functions.
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Output Equation
Algebraic equation expressing the output in terms of the state variables. Multi-output systems: a scalar output equation is needed to define each output. Substitute from solution of state equation to obtain output.
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State-space Representation
Representation for the system described by a differential equation in terms of state and output equations. Linear Systems: More convenient to write state (output) equations as a single matrix equation
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Example 7.2
The state-space equations for the system of Ex. 7.1
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1. Zero direct D, constant B and C. 2. Time-varying system: A has entries that are functions of t.
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Solution
order 2 s (need 2 s initial conditions to solve completely. State Variables
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Example 7.5
Write the state-space equations for the 2D.O.F. anthropomorphic manipulator.
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Equations of Motion
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Solution
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f(.) (n1) and g(.) (l 1) = vectors of functions satisfying mathematical conditions to guarantee the existence and uniqueness of solution. affine linear in the control: often encountered in practice (includes equations of robotic manipulators)
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Function of n Variables
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Output Equation
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Example 7.6
Motion of nonlinear spring-mass-damper. y = displacement f = applied force m = mass of 1 Kg b(y) = nonlinear damper constant k(y) = nonlinear spring force. Find the equilibrium position corresponding to a force f in terms of the spring force, then linearize the equation of motion about this equilibrium.
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Solution
Equilibrium of the system with a force f (set all the time derivatives equal to zero and solve for y) Equilibrium is at zero velocity and the position y .
0 0
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Entries of state matrix: constants whose values depend on the equilibrium. Originally linear terms do not change with linearization.
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