A transmission or gearbox provides speed and torque conversions from a rotating power source to another device using gear

ratios. In British English the term transmission refers to the whole drive train, including gearbox, clutch, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive), differential and final drive shafts. The most common use is in motor vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a relatively high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping, and slower travel. The transmission reduces the higher engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. Transmissions are also used on pedal bicycles, fixed machines, and anywhere else rotational speed and torque needs to be adapted.
Often, a transmission will have multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with the ability to switch between them as speed varies. This switching may be done manually (by the operator), or automatically. Directional (forward and reverse) control may also be provided. Single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque (and sometimes direction) of motor output. In motor vehicle applications, the transmission will generally be connected to the crankshaft of the engine. The output of the transmission is transmitted via driveshaft to one or more differentials, which in turn drive the wheels. While a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to change the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the only mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation (e.g., diesel-electric transmission, hydraulic drive system, etc.). Hybrid configurations also exist.

A Very Simple Transmission To understand the basic idea behind a standard transmission, the diagram below shows a very simple two-speed transmission in neutral:
Let's look at each of the parts in this diagram to understand how they fit together: The green shaft comes from the engine through the clutch. The green shaft and green gear are connected as a single unit. (The clutch is a device that lets you connect and disconnect the engine and the transmission. When you push in the clutch pedal, the engine and the transmission are disconnected so the engine can run even if the car is standing still. When you release the clutch pedal, the engine and the green shaft are directly connected to one another. The green shaft and gear turn at the same rpm as the engine.) The red shaft and gears are called the layshaft. These are also connected as a single piece, so all of the gears on the layshaft and the layshaft itself spin as one unit. The green shaft and the red shaft are directly connected through their meshed gears so that if the green shaft is spinning, so is the red shaft. In this way, the layshaft receives its power directly from the engine whenever the clutch is engaged. Gearboxes have found use in a wide variety of differentoften stationaryapplications, The yellow shaft is a splined shaft that connects directly to the drive shaft through the differential to the drive wheels of the car. If the wheels are spinning, such as wind turbines. Transmissions are also used the yellow shaft is spinning. The blue gears ride on bearings, so they spin on the yellow shaft. If the engine is in agricultural, industrial, constructi off but the car is coasting, the yellow shaft can turn inside the blue gears while on, mining and automotive equipm the blue gears and the layshaft are motionless. ent. In addition to ordinary The purpose of the collar is to connect one of the two blue gears to the yellow transmission equipped with gears, drive shaft. The collar is connected, through the splines, directly to the yellow shaft and spins with the yellow shaft. However, the collar can slide left or right such equipment makes extensive use of the hydrostatic drive and along the yellow shaft to engage either of the blue gears. Teeth on the collar, electrical adjustable-speed drives. called dog teeth, fit into holes on the sides of the blue gears to engage them.

Uses

Automotive basics
Cars need transmissions because of the physics of the gasoline engine. First, any engine has a redline -- a maximum rpm value above which the engine cannot go without exploding. Second, if you have read How Horsepower Works, then you know that engines have narrow rpm ranges where horsepower and torque are at their maximum. For example, an engine might produce its maximum horsepower at 5,500 rpm. The transmission allows the gear ratio between the engine and the drive wheels to change as the car speeds up and slows down. You shift gears so the engine can stay below the redline and near the rpm band of its best performance. Ideally, the transmission would be so flexible in its ratios that the engine could always run at its single, best-performance rpm value.. Furthermore, the engine provides its highest torque outputs approximately in the middle of its range, while often the greatest torque is required when the vehicle is moving from rest or travelling slowly. Therefore, a system that transforms the engine's output so that it can supply high torque at low speeds, but also operate at highway speeds with the motor still operating within its limits, is required. Transmissions perform this transformation.

A five-speed transmission applies one of five different gear ratios to the input shaft to produce a different rpm value at the output shaft. Here are some typical gear ratios:
Gear Ratio RPM at Transmission Output Shaft with Engine at 3,000 rpm

1st 2nd

2.315:1 1.568:1

1,295 1,913

3rd
4th 5th

1.195:1
1.000:1 0.915:1

2,510
3,000 3,278

Transmission types Manual

Sequential manual Non-synchronous

Automatic Manumatic Semi-automatic Electrohydraulic Dual clutch Saxomat Zeroshift Continuously variable

Manual

A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox or standard transmission (informally, a "manual", "straight shift", "stick", or "straight drive") is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. It generally uses a driver-operated clutch, typically operated by a pedal or lever, for regulating torque transfer from the internal combustion engine to the transmission, and a gear stick, either operated by hand (as in a car) or by foot (as on a motorcycle). A conventional manual transmission is frequently the base equipment in a car, with the option being an automated transmissions such as an automatic transmission (often manumatic), semi-automatic transmission, or the continuously variable transmission (CVT).
Manual transmissions often feature a driver-operated clutch and a movable gear stick. Most automobile manual transmissions allow the driver to select any forward gear ratio ("gear") at any time, but some, such as those commonly mounted on motorcycles and some types of racing cars, only allow the driver to select the next-higher or next-lower gear. This type of transmission is sometimes called a sequential manual transmission. Sequential transmissions are commonly used in auto racing for their ability to make quick shifts. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is often called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. . Some manuals are referred to by the number of forward gears they offer (e.g., 5-speed) as a way of distinguishing between automatic or other available manual transmissions. Similarly, a 5-speed automatic transmission is referred to as a "5-speed automatic."

The earliest form of a manual transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-Ren Panhard and Emile Levassor in the late 19th century

To shift to a higher gear, the transmission is put in neutral and the engine allowed to slow down until the transmission parts for the next gear are at a proper speed to engage. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, and other such factors. To shift to a lower gear, the transmission is put in neutral and the throttle is used to speed up the engine and thus the relevant transmission parts, to match speeds for engaging the next lower gear. For both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released (engaged) while in neutral. Some drivers use the clutch only for starting from a stop, and shifts are done without the clutch. Other drivers will depress (disengage) the clutch, shift to neutral, then engage the clutch momentarily to force transmission parts to match the engine speed, then depress the clutch again to shift to the next gear, a process called double clutching.

Most modern cars are fitted with a synchronised gear box. Transmission gears are always in mesh and rotating, but gea one shaft can freely rotate or be locked to the shaft. The lock mechanism for a gear consists of a collar (or dog collar) on t shaft which is able to slide sideways so that teeth (or dogs) o inner surface bridge two circular rings with teeth on their oute circumference: one attached to the gear, one to the shaft. W the rings are bridged by the collar, that particular gear is rota locked to the shaft and determines the output speed of the transmission. The gearshift lever manipulates the collars usin set of linkages, so arranged so that one collar may be permit lock only one gear at any one time; when "shifting gears," the locking collar from one gear is disengaged before that of ano engaged. One collar often serves for two gears; sliding in on direction selects one transmission speed, in the other directio selects another.

Benefits and drawbacks

Manual transmissions are more efficient than conventional automatics and belt-driven continuously-variable transmissions.[5] The driver has more direct control over the car with a manual than with an automatic, which can be employed by an experienced, knowledgeable driver who knows the correct procedure for executing a driving maneuver, and wants the vehicle to realize his or her intentions exactly and instantly. Manual transmissions do not require active cooling and generally weigh less than comparable automatics. Manual transmissions also lack the parasitic power consumption of the automatic transmission's hydraulic pump. Additionally, they require less maintenance and are easier to repair due to the fact that they have fewer moving parts and are, mechanically, much simpler than automatic transmissions. When properly operated by an experienced driver, manual transmissions also tend to last longer than similar automatic transmissions. Manual transmissions also generally offer a higher selection of gear ratios. Manual transmissions generally offer better fuel economy than automatic torque converter transmissions; however the disparity has been somewhat offset with the introduction of locking torque converters on automatic transmissions

The smoothness and correct timing of gear shifts are wholly dependent on the driver's experience and skill. If an inexperienced driver selects the wrong gear by mistake, s/he can do damage to the transmission. Attempting to select reverse while the vehicle is moving forward causes severe gear wear (except in transmissions with synchromesh on reverse when the vehicle is moving backward), and choosing a low gear with the car moving at speed can overspeed and damage the engine. Some automatic transmissions can shift ratios faster than a manual gear change can be accomplished, due to the time required for the average driver to push the clutch pedal to the floor and move the gearstick from one position to another. This is especially true in regards to dual clutch transmissions, which are specialized computer-controlled manual transmissions. Manual transmissions place a slightly greater workload on the driver in heavy traffic situations, when the driver must often operate the clutch pedal.

Sequential manual transmission

A sequential manual transmission (or sequential manual gearbox) is a type of manual transmission used on motorcycles and high-performance cars for auto racing, where gears are selected in order, and direct access to specific gears is not possible. With traditional manual transmissions, the driver can move from gear to gear, by moving the shifter to the appropriate position. This type of transmission is often referred to as a H-pattern because of the path that the shift lever takes as it selects the various gears. A clutch must be disengaged before the new gear is selected, to disengage the runningengine from the transmission, thus stopping all torque transfer. In auto racing, this process is slow and prone to human error; hence the development of the sequential transmission is put in hand. A true sequential transmission will very often use dog clutch engagement rather than the more usual syncromesh as fitted to a normal H-pattern road car gearbox. Engagement using dogs only requires a very brief interruption of engine torque to complete a shift into any adjacent gear. This allows shifting between gears without the use of the clutch. The clutch would normally be used only for standing starts. Sequential manual transmissions work by providing the driver with the ability to select the gear directly before or after the gear currently engaged. Usually the shift lever is pulled back to select the adjacent higher gear and pushed forwards to select the adjacent lower gear. On a true sequential gearbox, the shift lever operates a ratchet mechanism that converts the fore & aft motion of the shift lever into a rotary motion. This rotary action turns a selector drum (sometimes called a barrel) which has three or four tracks machined around its circumference. Running in the tracks are the selector forks, either directly or via selector rods. These tracks deviate around the circumference and as the drum rotates, the selector forks running in the tracks are moved to select the required gear. Only a true sequential transmission has a shift mechanism that operates in this way. Sequential gearboxes are also used in nearly all modern motorcycles as it is too cumbersome to have a conventional

Benefits
Beyond the ease of use from a driver's standpoint, an additional benefit of sequential manual gearboxes is that use of the clutch via foot pedal or hand control can be minimized or completely obviated, with the clutch only used for starting from a complete stop. The simple push-pull action of the shift mechanism also lends itself to semi-automatic control using either hydraulic or pneumatic actuatorsa system often referred to as paddle-shift. Instead of a manual gear lever, the driver is provided with (usually) a pair of flipper paddles on the steering wheel, rally cars often utilize just a double-acting single paddle. Pulling on the right-hand paddle makes an up-shift and pulling on the left-hand paddle makes a down-shift. The paddle-shift system will use a sophisticated electronic control unit to provide the necessary logic to operate the shift mechanism. This type of paddle-shift system fitted to race and rally cars should not be confused with most of the current crop of so-called paddle-shift systems fitted to some high-end road cars. More often than not, these systems are nothing more than conventional automatic transmissions which allow driver input to select the gears.

Drawback
While a sequential manual transmission can (depending on the model) offer faster shift speeds and thus faster race times, many road-cardriving enthusiasts prefer a standard manual transmission, which with a clutch pedal and the ability to skip gearsallows more driver input and a more traditional driving experience.[1]

Non-synchronous transmission
A non-synchronous transmission is a form of transmission based on gears that do not use synchronizing mechanisms. They are found primarily in various types ofagricultural, and commercial vehicles. Because the gear boxes are engineered without "cone and collar" synchronizing technology, the non-synchronous transmission type requires an understanding of gear range, torque, engine power, range selector, multi-functional clutch, and shifter functions. Engineered to pull tremendous loads, often equal to or exceeding 40 tons, some vehicles may also use a combination of transmissions for different mechanisms. An example would be a PTO.[1]

How non-synchronization works

Non-synchronous transmissions are engineered[4] with the understanding that a trained operator will be shifting gears in a known coordination of timing. They are also known as "constant-mesh" transmissions because the gears are always in mesh and the shifting is done by collars that slide along the mainshaft. This protects the gear teeth from damage. A common design has twin countershafts with the main, constant mesh gears floating between the countershaft gears. The floating gear feature of the design, along with angled teeth on the shift collars, makes for very easy shifting, provided the parts have been brought to near synchronous speed via double-clutching. The shift collars can sustain minor chipping and other damage without affecting the smoothness of the gearbox's operation because they merely lock in place. Commercial vehicle operators use adoubleclutching technique that is taught in driver's trade schools. The most skillful drivers can shift these transmissions without using the clutch by bringing the engine to exactly the right rpm in neutral before attempting to complete a shift, a technique called "float-shifting." With payloads of cargo ranging in commercial freight of 80,000 lbs (40 tons) or more, some heavy haulers have over 24 gears that an operator will shift through before reaching a top cruising speed of 70 mph. Many lowlow (creeper) gears are used in farm equipment to plow, till, or harvest. Also see Engineering vehicle. An inexperienced operator would suddenly find a piece of heavy equipment stuck in gear under full power, or even worse unable to shift into gear a runaway vehicle in neutral headed down a steep slope, unless he understood the synchronizing skill, and torque issues in non-synchronous transmissions. Many mountain roads require heavy equipment operators to remain in gear and not shift while passing down a steep grade. For more details about steep grade operation see either jake brake, or engine brake. Many other circumstances face operators of non-synchronous transmissions. Safety and operator skills need to be learned before operating any of these types of vehicles.

Double clutching (commercial motor vehicle)

Operators of 18-wheelers, farm equipment, tractors & other heavy equipment learn to float the transmission in & out of gear, beginning with dis-engaging the clutch by pressing the clutch pedal only part way, enough to pull the transmission out of gear, re-engaging the clutch in neutral (between gears by letting the clutch pedal all the way back out) to let the engine revolutions decelerate enough for the idle sprockets to shift, and free gear shafts to slow their revolutions per minute (RPM), then dis-engage the clutch again ( by pressing the clutch pedal only part way to the floor) a 2nd time, and float the higher gear into engaging the drive coupling & fly wheel and engaging the clutch plates. Professional operators of heavy equipment take extensive safety training before ever learning how to double-clutch. Once an operator is familiar with range, range selector, rpm, velocity, and torque of heavy equipment like an 18-wheeler, they can begin to anticipate when to shift gears. Operators become familiar with ranges of gears. They also learn not to leave their foot on the clutch while driving, because these types of transmissions use the clutch for several very different purposes. The depth the clutch is depressed to the floor will determine what the clutch will be doing as a synchronizing function.

Clutch brake
Unlike any other type of transmission, non-synchronous transmissions often have a mechanism for slowing down, or stopping an idle gear. In commercial motor vehicles, this mechanism is called the clutch brake, and is used by depressing the clutch all the way to the floor. This is useful in 18wheelers that have just started their diesel engines, and are releasing parking locks, and engaging the transmission from a stop. The clutch brake not only slows or stops the idle gear axis, but can also prevent shifting into gear until the clutch is lifted a few inches off the floor. In order to shift into gear, the clutch must be half way off the floor, otherwise the clutch brake will prevent the transmission from being shifted into or out of gear. Mechanics must often repair or replace the clutch brake in a non-synchronous transmission when an inexperienced operator wears it out, it becomes inoperable, or has lost its function.

Comparison of transmissions
Non-synchronous transmissions[5] are designed to depend upon an operator experienced in changing gears. These types of transmissions are known to heavy equipment operators as nonsynchronous transmissions. The operators must understand how to shift these transmissions into and out of gear. Many learn how to do this in certifying schools. All automatic transmissions have synchronizing mechanisms. Most manual transmissions also have synchronizers[6]. But, there are still other types of transmissions used mostly in commercial applications that are non-synchronous. Fully synchronous,hydrau-pneumatic systems are designed to change gears based on engine performance, and other velocity indicators, delivering torque to drive wheels. These transmissions have synchronizing mechanisms (called cone & collar synchronizers) that are designed to keep gear dog-teeth from being broken off. Heavy equipment for industrial, military, or farm use have different torque and load issues. They have unique stress from massive horsepower that would make converter faces shear. For the reasons of engineering a dependable, longer-life piece of equipment, these machines often use non-synchronous transmissions. Any transmission that requires the operator to manually synchronize engine crank-shaft revolutions (RPM) with drive-shaft revolutions is non-synchronous.

Automatic transmission

An automatic gearbox is one type of motor vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear ratios as the vehicle moves, freeing the driver from having to shift gearsmanually. Most automatic transmissions have a defined set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl feature that locks the output shaft of the transmission. Similar but larger devices are also used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles and equipment. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as some forklift trucks and lawn mowers, only use a torque converter to provide a variable gearing of the engine to the wheels. Besides automatics, there are also other types of automated transmissions such as continuous variable transmissions (CVTs) and semi-automatic transmissions, that free up the driver from having to shift gears manually by using the transmission's computer to change gear, if for example the driver were redlining the engine. Despite superficial similarity to other automated transmissions, automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and driver's "feel" from semiautomatics and CVTs. An automatic uses a torque converter instead of clutch to manage the link between the transmission and the engine, while a CVT uses a belt instead of a fixed number of gears, and a semi-automatic retains the clutch like a manual but activates the clutch through electrohydraulic means. A conventional manual transmission is frequently the base equipment in a car, with the option being an automated transmission such as a conventional automatic, manumatic, semi-automatic, or CVT. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions (manumatics such as Tiptronic), semi-automatics (BMW SMG), and continuous variable transmissions (CVTs) (such as Lineartronic).

Automatic transmissions can be in general effective, in spite of higher fuel consumption, less dynamism and higher costs. Nevertheless, an automatic transmission is able to combine successfully the advantages of both transmissions types. It is remarkable through its sporty features, as it is very dynamic, it is effective, and the consumption is almost similar to a manual transmission. Besides, comfort is high and speed can be changed without interrupting power flow.

Energy efficiency
Hydraulic automatic transmissions are almost always less energy efficient than manualtorque, rather than a torque converter, thus avoiding the primary source of loss in an automatic transmission. Manual transmissions also avoid the power requirement of the hydraulic control system, by relying on the human muscle power of the vehicle operator to disengage the clutch and actuate the gear levers, and the mental power of the operator to make appropriate gear ratio selections. Thus the manual transmission requires very little engine power to function, with the main power consumption due to drag from the gear train being immersed in the lubricating oil of the gearbox. The energy efficiency of automatic transmission has increased with the introduction of the torque converter lock-up clutch, which practically eliminates fluid losses when engaged. Modern automatic transmission also minimize energy usage and complexity, by minimizing the amount of shifting logic that is done hydraulically. Typically, control of the transmission has been transferred to computerized control systems which do not use fluid pressure for shift logic or actuation of clutching mechanisms. The on road acceleration of an automatic transmission can occasionally transmissions due mainly to viscous and pumping losses; both in the torque converter and the hydraulic actuators. A relatively small amount of energy is required to pressurize the hydraulic control system, which uses fluid pressure to determine the correct shifting patterns and operate the various automatic clutch mechanisms. Manual transmissions use a mechanical clutch to transmit exceed that of an otherwise identical vehicle equipped with a manual transmission in turbocharged diesel applications. Turbo-boost is normally lost between gear changes in a manual whereas in an automatic the accelerator pedal can remain fully depressed. This however is still largely dependent upon the number and optimal spacing of gear ratios for each unit, and whether or not the elimination of spooldown/accelerator lift off represent a significant enough gain to counter the slightly higher power consumption of the automatic transmission itself.

Automatic transmission modes

Conventionally, in order to select the transmission operating 'mode', the driver moves a selection lever located either on the steering column or on the floor (as with a manual). In order to select modes, or to manually select specific gear ratios, the driver must push a button in (called the shift lock button) or pull the handle (only on column mounted shifters) out. Some vehicles position selector buttons for each mode on the cockpit instead, freeing up space on the central console. Vehicles conforming to US Government standards must have the modes ordered P-R-N-D-L (left to right, top to bottom, or clockwise). Prior to this, quadrant-selected automatic transmissions often utilized a P-N-D-L-R layout, or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of deaths[citation needed] and injuries owing to unintentional gear selection, as well as the danger of having a selector (when worn) jump into Reverse from Low gear during engine braking maneuvers[citation needed].

Semi-automatic transmission
A semi-automatic transmission (also known as clutchless manual transmission, automated manual transmission, flappy-paddle gearbox, or paddle shift gearbox) is a system which uses electronic sensors, processors and actuators to execute gear shifts on the command of the driver. This removes the need for a clutch pedal which the driver otherwise needs to depress before making a gear change, since the clutch itself is actuated by electronic equipment which can synchronise the timing and torque required to make gear shifts quick and smooth. The system was designed by automobile manufacturers to provide a better driving experience, especially in cities where congestion frequently causes stop-and-go traffic patterns. Many modern semi-automatic transmissions can also operate in the same manner as a conventional type of automatic transmission by allowing the transmission's computer to automatically change gear if, for example, the driver were redlining the engine. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automatic transmissions (manumatics such as Tiptronic) and continuous variable transmissions (CVTs) (such as Lineartronic). Despite superficial similarity to other automated transmissions, semi-automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and driver's "feel" from manumatics and CVTs. A manumatic, like a standard automatic transmission, uses a torque converter instead of clutch to manage the link between the transmission and the engine, while a CVT uses a belt instead of a fixed number of gears. The semi-automatic transmission may be derived from a conventional automatic; for instance Mercedes-Benz's AMG SPEEDSHIFT MCT semi-automatic transmission is based on the 7G-Tronic manumatic, however the latter's torque converter has been replaced with a dual-clutch.[1]. Other semi-automatics have their roots in a conventional manual; the SMG II drivelogic (found in the BMW M3 (E46) is a Getrag 6-speed manual transmission, but with an electrohydraulically actuated clutch pedal, similar to an Formula One style transmission.[2][2][3] [4][2]

Operation

In standard mass-production automobiles, the gear lever appears similar to manual shifts, except that the gear stick only moves forward and backward to shift into higher and lower gears, instead of the traditional H-pattern. The Bugatti Veyron uses this approach for its seven-speed transmission. In Formula One, the system is adapted to fit onto the steering wheel in the form of two paddles; depressing the right paddle shifts into a higher gear, while Steering wheel of Ferrari F430 with depressing the left paddle shifts into a lower one. Numerous road cars have inherited the same mechanism. paddle-shifters Hall effect sensors sense the direction of requested shift, and this input, together with a sensor in the gear box which senses the current speed and gear selected, feeds into a central processing unit. This unit then determines the optimal timing and torque required for a smooth clutch engagement, based on input from these two sensors as well as other factors, such as engine rotation, the Electronic Stability Control, air conditioner and dashboard instruments. The central processing unit powers a hydro-mechanical unit to either engage or disengage the clutch, which is kept in close synchronization with the gear-shifting action the driver has started. The hydro-mechanical unit contains a servomotor coupled to a gear arrangement for a linear actuator, which uses brake fluid from the braking system to impel a hydraulic cylinder to move the main clutch actuator. The power of the system lies in the fact that electronic equipment can react much faster and more precisely than a human, and takes advantage of the precision of electronic signals to allow a complete clutch operation without the intervention of the driver. For the needs of parking, reversing and neutralizing the transmission, the driver must engage both paddles at once, after this has been accomplished the car will prompt for one of the three options. The clutch is really only needed to start the car. For a quicker upshift, the engine power can be cut, and the collar disengaged until the engine drops to the correct speed for the next gear. For the teeth of the collar to slide into the teeth of the rings, both the speed and position must match. This needs sensors to measure not only the speed, but the positions of the teeth, and the throttle may need to be opened softer or harder. The even-faster shifting techniques like powershifting require a heavier gearbox or clutch or even a dual clutch transmission.

ATVs
Honda released semi-automatic electric shift ATVs starting in model year 1998 with the TRX450FE aka Foreman 450ES ESP (Electric Shift Program). Shifting is accomplished by pressing either one of the gear selector arrows on the left handlebar control. The current selected gear is indicated by a digital display. The primary components of the shifting mechanisms were the same on both the manual and electric shift models, but the major difference was the deletion of the shift pedal and the addition of an internal electric shift servo which actuated the components (clutch assy, shift drum, etc.)in one motion instead of the traditional foot lever. In the event of a malfunction, a supplied override lever can be placed on a shaft protruding from the crankcase in the traditional spot where the pedal would have been. This electric shift technology was later applied to their complete line of ATVs.

Electrohydraulic manual transmission

Electrohydraulic manual transmission is a type of semi-automatic transmission system, which uses an automated clutch unlike conventionalmanual transmissions where the driver operates the clutch. The clutch is controlled by electronic computers and hydraulics. To change gears, the driver selects the desired gear with the transmission shift lever, and the system automatically operates the clutch and throttle to match revs and engage the clutch again. Also, many such transmissions operate in sequential mode where the driver can only upshift or downshift by one gear at a time. Depending on the implementation, some computer-controlled electrohydraulic manual transmissions will automatically shift gears at the right points (like an automatic transmission), while others require the driver to manually select the gear even when the engine is at the redline. Despite superficial similarity, clutchless manual transmission differ significantly in internal operation and driver's 'feel' from manumatics, the latter of which is an automatic transmission (automatics use a torque converter instead of clutch to manage the link between the transmission and the wheels) with ability to signal shift manually.

Dual clutch transmission

A dual clutch transmission, commonly abbreviated to DCT[1] (sometimes informally referred to as a twin-clutch gearbox, double clutch transmission, or similar variations thereof), is a differing type of semiautomatic or automated manual automotive transmission. It utilises two separate clutches[2] for odd and even gear sets. It can fundamentally be described as two separate manual transmissions (with their respective clutches) contained within one housing, and working as one unit.[1][3] They are usually operated in a fully automatic mode, and many also have the ability to allow the driver to manually shift gears,[2] albeit still carried out by the transmission's electro-hydraulics. This type of transmission was invented by Frenchman Adolphe Kgresse just prior to World War II,[4] but he never developed a working model. The first actual DCTs arrived from Porsche in-house development, for Porsche racing cars in the 1980s,[1] when computers to control the transmission became compact enough: the Porsche Doppelkupplungsgetriebe (English: dual clutch gearbox) (PDK)[1] used in the Porsche 956[1] and 962[1] Le Mans race cars from 1983,[1] and the Audi Sport Quattro S1 rallycar.[4][5] A dual clutch transmission eliminates the torque converter as used in conventional epicyclic-geared automatic transmissions.[2] Instead, dual clutch transmissions that are currently on the market primarily use two oil-bathed wet multi-plate clutches, similar to the clutches used in most motorcycles, though dry clutch versions are also available.[6] The first series production road car to be fitted with a DCT was the Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG) in the 2003 Volkswagen Golf Mk4 R32.[1][7][8] As of 2009, the largest number of sales of DCTs in Western Europe are by various marques of the German Volkswagen Group,[9] though this is anticipated to lessen as other transmission makers and vehicle manufacturers make DCTs available in series production automobiles.[1][10] In 2010, on BMW Canada's website for the 3 Series Coupe, it is described both as a 7-speed double clutch transmission and as a 7-speed automatic transmission. It is actually a dual clutch semi-automatic.[11]

Overview
In DCTs where the two clutches are arranged concentrically, the larger outer clutch drives the odd numbered gears,[1][2][7] whilst the smaller inner clutch drives the even numbered gears.[1][2][7] Shifts can be accomplished without interrupting torque distribution to the driven roadwheels,[1][2][3][4][7] by applying the engine's torque to one clutch at the same time as it is being disconnected from the other clutch.[1][4] Since alternate gear ratios can preselect[1][2][3][4] an odd gear on one gear shaft whilst the vehicle is being driven in an even gear,[3] (and vice versa), DCTs are able to shift more quickly than other cars equipped with single-clutch automated-manual transmissions (AMTs), a.k.a. single-clutch semi-automatics. Also, with a DCT, shifts can be made more smoothly than with an AMT, making a DCT more suitable for conventional road cars.[12][not in citation given]

Clutch types
There are two fundamental types of clutches utilised in dual clutch transmissions: either two wet multi-plate clutches which are bathed in oil (for cooling), or two dry single-plate clutches.[8] The wet clutch design is generally used for higher torque engines which can generate 350 newton metres (258 ftlbf) and more (the wet multi-plate clutch DCT in the Bugatti Veyron is designed to cope with 1,250 Nm (922 ftlbf)[1]), whereas the dry clutch design is generally suitable for smaller vehicles with lower torque outputs up to 250 Nm (184 ftlbf).[1][6] However, whilst the dry clutch variants may be limited in torque compared to their wet clutch counterparts, the dry clutch variants offer an increase in fuel efficiency,[1] due to the lack of pumping losses of the transmission fluid in the clutch housing.[1] [edit]Clutch installation There are now three variations of clutch installation. The original design used a concentric arrangement, where both clutches shared the same plane when viewed perpendicularly from the transmission input shaft, along the same centre line as the engine crankshaft; when viewed head-on along the length of the input shaft, this makes one clutch noticeably larger than the other. The second implementation utilised two single-plate dry clutches which are side-by-side from the perpendicular view, but again sharing the centre line of the crankshaft. A latest variation uses two separate but identical sized clutches; these are arranged side-by-side when viewed headon (along the length of the input shaft and crankshaft centre line), and also share the same plane when viewed perpendicularly. This latter clutch arrangement (unlike the other two variations) is driven via a gear from the engine crankshaft.

Saxomat
Saxomat was a type of automatic clutch available as an option on Fiat 1800, Saab 93, Volkswagen Beetle, Borgward, Goliath 1100, Dampf-Kraft-Wagen (DKW), BMW, Opel,NSU, Glas, Trabant and Wartburg cars. Opel sold it as Olymat; Trabant and Wartburg named the system Hycomat. The Hydrak, used in some MercedesBenz vehicles between 1957 and 1961, was a similar system with a hydrodynamic torque converter in place of the Saxomat's centrifugal clutch. The system also reappeared in the 1990s as Sensonic. Cars with a Saxomat clutch did not have a clutch pedal. The Saxomat consisted of two independent systems, the centrifugal clutch, and the servo clutch. The centrifugal clutch was engaged above certain engine rpms by centrifugal force, acting on spinning weights inside the clutch, similar to a centrifugal governor. The servo clutch used an electric switch that supplied manifold vacuum via an actuator valve to a reservoir that disengaged the cluch. The clutch is disengaged automatically whenever the gear shift lever was touched.

Zeroshift
Zeroshift or seamless-shift gearbox is a type of automotive transmission which allows for changing gear without interruption of torque to the driving roadwheels. The Zeroshift principle was invented by Bill Martin, the company Zeroshift Ltd is based in Milton Keynes, England. The Zeroshift gear system has demonstrated superior performance over the manual transmission,[citation needed] which must disengage the engine from the driving wheels to prevent drivetrain wear. An automatic transmission can waste power due to its torque converter if unlocked,[citation needed] and usually provides inferior performance compared to a manual.[citation needed] Currently the Zeroshift transmission is under development,[citation needed] and a volume production non-exclusive licence has been sold to an undisclosed global transmission manufacturer.[citation needed] The Zeroshift principle has been demonstrated on a number of the companys development vehicles.[citation needed] It is expected that the Zeroshift transmission may be a replacement for current semi-automatic transmission.[citation needed]

Method of operation
The Zeroshift transmission is mechanically similar to a manual transmission with all parts other than the synchro's being the same.[citation needed] The Zeroshift gearbox is operated by "bullets" which engage and disengage the gears.[citation needed] Each set of gears has two bullets: a drive bullet and an overdrive bullet.

Continuously variable transmission

A continuously variable transmission (CVT) is a transmission which can change steplessly through an infinite number of effective gear ratios between maximum and minimum values. This contrasts with other mechanical transmissions that only allow a few different distinct gear ratios to be selected. The flexibility of a CVT allows the driving shaft to maintain a constant angular velocity over a range of output velocities. This can provide better fuel economy than other transmissions by enabling the engine to run at its most efficient revolutions per minute (RPM) for a range of vehicle speeds. Alternatively it can be used to maximize the performance of a vehicle by allowing the engine to turn at the RPM at which it produces peak power. This is typically higher than the RPM that achieves peak efficiency.

History of the CVT Leonardo Da Vinci sketched the first CVT in 1490. Dutch automaker DAF first started using CVTs in their cars in the late 1950s, but technology limitations made CVTs unsuitable for engines with more than around 100 horsepower. In the late 80s and early 90s, Subaru offered a CVT in their Justy mini-car, while Honda used one in the high-mileage Honda Civic HX of the late 90s. Improved CVTs capable of handling more powerful engines were developed in the late 90s and 2000s, and CVTs can now be found in cars from Nissan, Audi, Honda, Ford, GM, and other automakers.

No More Gears A Timeline of CVT Innovation

1490 - da Vinci sketches a stepless continuously variable transmission 1886 - first toroidal CVT patent filed 1935 - Adiel Dodge receives U.S. patent for toroidal CVT 1939 - fully automatic transmission based on planetary gear system introduced 1958 - Daf (of The Netherlands) produces a CVT in a car 1989 - Subaru Justy GL is the first U.S.-sold production automobile to offer a CVT 2002 - Saturn Vue with a CVT debuts; first Saturn to offer CVT technology 2004 - Ford begins offering a CVT

What is a continuously variable transmission? A continuously variable transmission, or CVT, is a type of automatic transmission that provides more useable power, better fuel economy and a smoother driving experience than a traditional automatic. Driving a car with a CVT The controls for a CVT are the same as an automatic: Two pedals (no clutch) and a P-R-N-D-Lstyle shift pattern. But while an automatic transmission has a set number of gear ratios (a.k.a. speeds), usually 4, 5 or 6, the CVT can constantly change the relationship of engine speed to car speed. When driving a car with a CVT, you never hear or feel the transmission shift -- it simply raises and lowers the engine speed as needed, calling up higher engine speeds (or RPMs) for better acceleration and lower RPMs for better fuel economy while cruising. Many people find the CVT disconcerting at first because of the way cars with CVTs sound. When you step on the accelerator, the engine races as it would with a slipping clutch or a failing automatic transmission. This is normal -- the CVT is adjusting the engine speed to provide optimal power for acceleration. How the CVT works Traditional transmissions use a gearset that provides a given number of ratios (or speeds). The transmission (or the driver) shifts gears to provide the most appropriate ratio for a given situation: Lowest gears for starting out, middle gears for acceleration and passing, and higher gears for fuelefficient cruising. Though there are several types of CVTs, most cars use a pair of variable-diameter pulleys, each shaped like a pair of opposing cones, with a metal belt or chain running between them. One pulley is connected to the engine (input shaft), the other to the drive wheels (output shaft). The halves of each pulley are moveable; as the pulley halves come closer together the belt is forced to ride higher on the pulley, effectively making the pulley's diameter larger. Changing the diameter of the pulleys varies the transmission's ratio (the number of times the output shaft revolves for each revolution of the engine), in the same way that a 10-speed bike routes the chain over larger or smaller gears to

Used in: Tractors for home and garden use. Aircraft electrical power generating systems. Snowmobiles and motor scooters use CVT. Drill presses and milling machines

CVTs should be distinguished from Power Sharing Transmissions (PSTs), as used in newer hybrid cars, such as the Toyota Prius, Highlander and Camry, theNissan Altima, and newer-model Ford Escape Hybrid SUVs. CVT technology uses only one input from a prime mover, and delivers variable output speeds and torque; whereas PST technology uses two prime mover inputs, and varies the ratio of their contributions to output speed and power. These transmissions are fundamentally different. However the Honda Insight hybrid, the Nissan Tiida/Versa (only the SL model), Nissan Cube, Juke, Rogue, Altima, Murano, Maxima,Jeep Patriot and Jeep compass use CVT.

CVT Basics Unlike traditional automatic transmissions, continuously variable transmissions don't have a gearbox with a set number of gears, which means they don't have interlocking toothed wheels. The most common type of CVT operates on an ingenious pulley system that allows an infinite variability between highest and lowest gears with no discrete steps or shifts.

Ford Freestyle Duratec engine with CVT

If you're wondering why the word "gear" still appears in the explanation of a CVT, remember that, broadly speaking, a gear refers to a ratio of engine shaft speed to driveshaft speed. Although CVTs change this ratio without using a set of planetary gears, they are still described as having low and high "gears" for the sake of convention.

Pulley-based CVTs Peer into a planetary automatic transmission, and you'll see a complex world of gears, brakes, clutches and governing devices. By comparison, a continuously variable transmission is a study in simplicity. Most CVTs only have three basic components: A high-power metal or rubber belt A variable-input "driving" pulley An output "driven" pulley CVTs also have various microprocessors and sensors, but the three components described above are the key elements that enable the technology to work. The variable-diameter pulleys are the heart of a CVT. Each pulley is made of two 20-degree cones facing each other. A belt rides in the groove between the two cones. V-belts are preferred if the belt is made of rubber. V-belts get their name from the fact that the belts bear a Vshaped cross section, which increases the frictional grip of the belt. When the two cones of the pulley are far apart (when the diameter increases), the belt rides lower in the groove, and the radius of the belt loop going around the pulley gets smaller. When the cones are close together (when the diameter decreases), the belt rides higher in the groove, and the radius of the belt loop going around the pulley gets larger. CVTs may use hydraulic pressure, centrifugal force or spring tension to create the force necessary to adjust the pulley halves. Variable-diameter pulleys must always come in pairs. One of the pulleys, known as the drive pulley (ordriving pulley), is connected to the crankshaft of the engine. The driving pulley is also called the input pulley because it's where the energy from the engine enters the transmission. The second pulley is called the driven pulley because the first pulley is turning it. As an output pulley, the driven pulley transfers energy to the driveshaft.

The distance between the center of the pulleys to where the belt makes contact in the groove is known as the pitch radius. When the pulleys are far apart, the belt rides lower and the pitch radius decreases. When the pulleys are close together, the belt rides higher and the pitch radius increases. The ratio of the pitch radius on the driving pulley to the pitch radius on the driven pulley determines the gear.
When one pulley increases its radius, the other decreases its radius to keep the belt tight. As the two pulleys change their radii relative to one another, they create an infinite number of gear ratios -- from low to high and everything in between. For example, when the pitch radius is small on the driving pulley and large on the driven pulley, then the rotational speed of the driven pulley decreases, resulting in a lower gear. When the pitch radius is large on the driving pulley and small on the driven pulley, then the rotational speed of the driven pulley increases, resulting in a higher gear. Thus, in theory, a CVT has an infinite number of "gears" that it can run through at any time, at any engine or vehicle speed. The simplicity and stepless nature of CVTs make them an ideal transmission for a variety of machines and devices, not just cars. CVTs have been used for years in power tools and drill presses. They've also been used in a variety of vehicles, including tractors, snowmobiles and motor scooters. In all of these applications, the transmissions have relied on high-density rubber belts, which can slip and stretch, thereby reducing their efficiency. The introduction of new materials makes CVTs even more reliable and efficient. One of the most important advances has been the design and development of metal belts to connect the pulleys. These flexible belts are composed of several (typically nine or 12) thin bands of steel that hold together high-strength, bow-tie-shaped pieces of metal.

Metal belts don't slip and are highly durable, enabling CVTs to handle more engine torque. They are also quieter than rubber-belt-driven CVTs.

Toroidal CVTs
Another version of the CVT -- the toroidal CVT system -- replaces the belts and pulleys with discs and power rollers.

Although such a system seems drastically different, all of the components are analogous to a belt-and-pulley system and lead to the same results -- a continuously variable transmission. Here's how it works: One disc connects to the engine. This is equivalent to the driving pulley. Another disc connects to the drive shaft. This is equivalent to the driven pulley. Rollers, or wheels, located between the discs act like the belt, transmitting power from one disc to the other.

Nissan Extroid toroidal CVT

The wheels can rotate along two axes. They spin around the horizontal axis and tilt in or out around the vertical axis, which allows the wheels to touch the discs in different areas. When the wheels are in contact with the driving disc near the center, they must contact the driven disc near the rim, resulting in a reduction in speed and an increase in torque (i.e., low gear). When the wheels touch the driving disc near the rim, they must contact the driven disc near the center, resulting in an increase in speed and a decrease in torque (i.e., overdrive gear). A simple tilt of the wheels, then, incrementally changes the gear ratio, providing for smooth, nearly instantaneous ratio changes.

Hydrostatic CVTs

Both the pulley-and-V-belt CVT and the toroidal CVT are examples of frictional CVTs, which work by varying the radius of the contact point between two rotating objects. There is another type of CVT, known as a hydrostatic CVT, that uses variable-displacement pumps to vary the fluid flow into hydrostatic motors. In this type of transmission, the rotational motion of the engine operates a hydrostatic pump on the driving side. The pump converts rotational motion into fluid flow. Then, with a hydrostatic motor located on the driven side, the fluid flow is converted back into rotational motion.

Often, a hydrostatic transmission is combined with a planetary gearset and clutches to create a hybrid system known as a hydromechanical transmission. Hydromechanical transmissions transfer power from the engine to the wheels in three different modes. At a low speed, power is transmitted hydraulically, and at a high speed, power is transmitted mechanically. Between these extremes, the transmission uses both hydraulic and mechanical means to transfer power. Hydromechanical transmissions are ideal for heavyduty applications, which is why they are common in agricultural tractors and all-terrain vehicles.

Infinitely Variable Transmission (IVT)

A specific type of CVT is the infinitely variable transmission (IVT), in which the range of ratios of output shaft speed to input shaft speed includes a zero ratio that can be continuously approached from a defined "higher" ratio. A zero output speed (low gear) with a finite input speed implies an infinite input-to-output speed ratio, which can be continuously approached from a given finite input value with an IVT. Low gears are a reference to low ratios of output speed to input speed. This low ratio is taken to the extreme with IVTs, resulting in a "neutral", or non-driving "low" gear limit, in which the output speed is zero. Unlike neutral in a normal automotive transmission, IVT output rotation may be prevented because the backdriving (reverse IVT operation) ratio may be infinite, resulting in impossibly high backdriving torque; ratcheting IVT output may freely rotate forward, though. The IVT dates back to before the 1930s; the original design converts rotary motion to oscillating motion and back to rotary motion using roller clutches.[2] The stroke of the intermediate oscillations is adjustable, varying the output speed of the shaft. This original design is still manufactured today, and an example and animation of this IVT can be found here. [3] Paul B. Pires created a more compact (radially symmetric) variation that employs a ratchet mechanism instead of roller clutches, so it doesn't have to rely on friction to drive the output. An article and sketch of this variation can be found here [4] Most IVTs result from the combination of a CVT with a planetary gear system (which is also known as an epicyclic gear system) which enforces an IVT output shaft rotation speed which is equal to the difference between two other speeds within the IVT. This IVT configuration uses its CVT as a continuously variable regulator (CVR) of the rotation speed of any one of the three rotators of the planetary gear system (PGS). If two of the PGS rotator speeds are the input and output of the CVR, there is a setting of the CVR that results in the IVT output speed of zero. The maximum output/input ratio can be chosen from infinite practical possibilities through selection of additional input or output gear, pulley or sprocket sizes without affecting the zero output or the continuity of the whole system. The IVT is always engaged, even during its zero output adjustment. IVTs can in some implementations offer better efficiency when compared to other CVTs as in the preferred range of operation because most of the power flows through the planetary gear system and not the controlling CVR. Torque transmission capability can also be increased. There's also possibility to stage power splits for further increase in efficiency, torque transmission capability and better maintenance of efficiency over a wide gear ratio range. An example of a true IVT is the SIMKINETICS SIVAT that uses a ratcheting CVR. Its CVR ratcheting mechanism contributes minimal IVT output ripple across its range of ratios. Another example of a true IVT is the Hydristor because the front unit connected to the engine can displace from zero to 27 cubic inches per revolution forward and zero to -10 cubic inches per revolution reverse. The rear unit is capable of zero to 75 cubic inches per revolution.

Cone CVTs
This category comprises all CVTs made up of one or more conical bodies that function together along their respective generatrices in order to achieve the variation. In the single-cone type, there is a revolving body (a wheel) that moves on the generatrix of the cone, thereby creating the variation between the inferior and the superior diameter of the cone. In a CVT with oscillating cones, the torque is transmitted via friction from a variable number of cones (according to the torque to be transmitted) to a central, barrel-shaped hub. The side surface of the hub is convex with a specified radius of curvature, smaller than the concavity radius of the cones. In this way, there will be only one (theoretical) contact point between each cone and the hub. A new CVT using this technology, the Warko, was presented in Berlin during the 6th International CTI Symposium of Innovative Automotive Transmissions, on 37 December 2007. A particular characteristic of the Warko is the absence of a clutch: the engine is always connected to the wheels, and the rear drive is obtained by means of an epicyclic system in output. This system, named power split, allows the condition of geared neutral or "zero Dynamic": when the engine turns (connected to the sun gear of the epicyclic system), the variator (which rotates the ring of the epicyclic system in the opposite sense to the sun gear), in a particular position of its range, will compensate for the engine rotation, having zero turns in output (planetary = the output of the system). As a consequence, the satellite gears roll within an internal ring gear.

 Ratcheting CVT Variable toothed wheel transmission Radial Roller CVT

Advantages CVTs can compensate for changing vehicle speeds, allowing the engine speed to remain at its level of peak efficiency. This improves fuel economy and by effect, exhaust emissions. CVTs operate smoothly since there are no gear changes which cause sudden jerks. Very few problems have been reported with the CVT transmission, lowering the cost of ownership.[citation needed] There are 25% fewer moving parts to a CVT transmission. They are also cheaper, but still expensive to repair. The fluids do not have to be changed as often as in an automatic transmission.

Advantages of the CVT Engines do not develop constant power at all speeds; they have specific speeds where torque (pulling power), horsepower (speed power) or fuel efficiency are at their highest levels. Because there are no gears to tie a given road speed directly to a given engine speed, the CVT can vary the engine speed as needed to access maximum power as well as maximum fuel efficiency. This allows the CVT to provide quicker acceleration than a conventional automatic or manual transmission while delivering superior fuel economy. The CVT transmission has several unique advantages to a convention automatic transmission. This includes improved performance as the transmission alters ratios while accelerating so that the engine doesnt run out of revs. Secondly, the infinite ratios also help maintain cruising speed steady and helps to reduce emissions while improving fuel economy. Some CVTs, such as those on vehicles at Nissan Washington DC, can even be programmed with pre set fixed ratios and emulate an actual manual transmission with lightning fast response.

Advantages of CVTs
Feature Constant, stepless acceleration from a complete stop to cruising speed Works to keep the car in its optimum power range regardless of how fast the car is traveling Responds better to changing conditions, such as changes in throttle and speed Less power loss in a CVT than a typical automatic transmission Better control of a gasoline engine's speed range Can incorporate automated versions of mechanical clutches Benefit Eliminates "shift shock" -- makes for a smoother ride

Improved fuel efficiency Eliminates gear hunting as a car decelerates, especially going up a hill Better acceleration Better control over emissions Replace inefficient fluid torque converters

Disadvantages of the CVT The CVT's biggest problem has been user acceptance. Because the CVT allows the engine to rev at any speed, the noises coming from under the hood sound odd to ears accustomed to conventional manual and automatic transmissions. The gradual changes in engine note sound like a sliding transmission or a slipping clutch -- signs of trouble with a conventional transmission, but perfectly normal for a CVT. Flooring an automatic car brings a lurch and a sudden burst of power, whereas CVTs provide a smooth, rapid increase to maximum power. To some drivers this makes the car feel slower, when in fact a CVT will generally out-accelerate an automatic. Automakers have gone to great lengths to make the CVT feel more like a conventional transmission. Most CVTs are set up to creep forward when the driver takes his or her foot off the brake. This provides a similar feel to a conventional automatic, and serves as an indicator that the car is in gear. Other CVTs offer a "manual" mode that simulates manual gear changes. Because early automotive CVTs were limited as to how much horsepower they could handle, there has been some concern about the long-term reliability of the CVT. Advanced technology has made the CVT much more robust. Nissan has more than a million CVTs in service around the world and uses them in powerful cars such as the 290 horsepowerMaxima, and says their long-term reliability is comparable to conventional transmissions.

Disadvantages CVTs operate smoothly and efficiently, without spending energy to jerk the car during a shift. This can give a perception of low power, because many drivers expect a jerk when they begin to move the vehicle. However, the expected jerk of a non-CVT can be emulated by CVT control software, thus eliminating this marketing problem.[citation needed] Since the CVT keeps the engine turning at constant RPM over a wide range of vehicle speeds, pressing on the accelerator pedal will make the car move faster but doesn't change the sound coming from the engine as much as a conventional automatic transmission gear-shift. This confuses some drivers and, again, leads to an impression of a lack of power. This can be considered a disadvantage if the driver desires to hear the engine change tone. CVT torque-handling capability is limited by the strength of their transmission medium (usually a belt or chain), and by their ability to withstand friction wear between torque source and transmission medium (in friction-driven CVTs). CVTs in production prior to 2005 are predominantly belt- or chain-driven and therefore typically limited to low-powered cars and other light-duty applications. Units using advanced lubricants, however, have been proven to support any amount of torque in production vehicles, including that used for buses, heavy trucks, and earth-moving equipment.

Chain drive

Chain drive is a way of transmitting mechanical power from one place to another. It is often used to convey power to the wheels of a vehicle, particularly bicycles andmotorcycles. It is also used in a wide variety of machines besides vehicles. Most often, the power is conveyed by a roller chain, known as the drive chain or transmission chain,[1] passing over a sprocket gear, with the teeth of the gear meshing with the holes in the links of the chain. The gear is turned, and this pulls the chain putting mechanical force into the system. Another type of drive chain is the Morse chain, invented by the Morse Chain Company of Ithaca, New York, USA. This has inverted teeth. [2] Sometimes the power is output by simply rotating the chain, which can be used to lift or drag objects. In other situations, a second gear is placed and the power is recovered by attaching shafts or hubs to this gear. Though drive chains are often simple oval loops, they can also go around corners by placing more than two gears along the chain; gears that do not put power into the system or transmit it out are generally known as idler-wheels. By varying the diameter of the input and output gears with respect to each other, the gear ratio can be altered, so that, for example, the pedals of a bicycle can spin all the way around more than once for every rotation of the gear that drives the wheels.

History
The oldest known application of a chain drive appears in the Polybolos, a repeating crossbow described by the Greek engineer Philon of Byzantium (3rd century BC). Two flat-linked chains were connected to a windlass, which by winding back and forth would automatically fire the machine's arrows until its magazine was empty.[3] Although the device did not transmit power continuously since the chains "did not transmit power from shaft to shaft",[4] the Greek design marks the beginning of the history of the chain drive since "no earlier instance of such a cam is known, and none as complex is known until the 16th century. It is here that the flat-link chain, often attributed to Leonardo da Vinci, actually made its first appearance."[3] The first continuous power-transmitting chain drive was depicted in the written horological treatise of the Song Dynasty (960 1279)Chinese engineer Su Song (1020-1101 AD), who used it to operate the armillary sphere of his astronomical clock tower as well as the clock jack figurines presenting the time of day by mechanically banging gongs and drums.[5][6] The chain drive itself was given power via the hydraulic works of Su's water clock tank and waterwheel, the latter which acted as a large gear. The endless power-transmitting chain drive was invented separately in Europe by Jacques de Vaucanson in 1770 for a silk reeling and throwing mill.[6] J. F. Tretz was the first to apply the chain drive to the bicycle in 1869.[6]

Chains versus belts

Drive chains are most often made of metal, while belts are often rubber, plastic, or other substances. Although well-made chains may prove stronger than belts, their greater mass increases drive train inertia. Drive belts can often slip (unless they have teeth) which means that the output side may not rotate at a precise speed, and some work gets lost to the friction of the belt against its rollers. Teeth on toothed drive belts generally wear faster than links on chains, but wear on rubber or plastic belts and their teeth is often easier to observe; you can often tell a belt is wearing out and about to break more easily than a chain. Chains are often narrower than belts, and this can make it easier to shift them to larger or smaller gears in order to vary the gear ratio. Multi-speed bicycles with derailleurs make use of this. Also, the more positive meshing of a chain can make it easier to build gears that can increase or shrink in diameter, again altering the gear ratio. Both can be used to move objects by attaching pockets, buckets, or frames to them; chains are often used to move things vertically by holding them in frames, as in industrial toasters, while belts are good at moving things horizontally in the form of conveyor belts. It is not unusual for the systems to be used in combination; for example the rollers that drive conveyor belts are themselves often driven by drive chains. Drive shafts are another common method used to move mechanical power around that is sometimes evaluated in comparison to chain drive; in particular shaft drive versus chain drive is a key design decision for most motorcycles. Drive shafts tend to be even tougher and more reliable than chain drive, but weigh even more (robbing more power), and impart rotational torque.

Transmitting power to the wheels

Chain drive was a popular power transmission system from the earliest days of the automobile. It gained prominence as an alternative to the Systme Panhard with its rigid Hotchkiss driveshaft and universal joints. A chain drive system uses one or more roller chains to transmit power from a differential to the rear axle. This system allowed for a great deal of vertical axle movement (for example, over bumps), and was simpler to design and build than a rigid driveshaft in a workable suspension. Also, it had less unsprung weight at the rear wheels than the Hotchkiss drive, which would have had the weight of the driveshaft to carry as well, which in turn meant that the tires would last longer. Frazer Nash were strong proponents of this system using one chain per gear selected by dog clutches. The Frazer Nash chain drive system, (designed for the GN Cyclecar Company by Archibald FrazerNash and Henry Ronald Godfrey) was very effective, allowing extremely fast gear selections. The Frazer Nash (or GN) transmission system provided the basis for many "special" racing cars of the 1920s and 1930s, the most famous being Basil Davenport's Spider which held the outright record at the Shelsley Walsh Speed Hill Climb in the 1920s. Parry-Thomas was killed during a land speed record attempt in his car 'Babs' when the chain final-drive broke, decapitating him. The last popular chain drive automobile was the Honda S600 of the 1960s.

Chain final drive, 1912 illustration

Inside motors
Internal combustion engines often use chain drive to power the timing chain used to drive overhead camshaft valvetrains. This is an area in which chain drives frequently compete directly with belt drive systems, and an excellent example of some of the differences and similarities between the two approaches. For this application, chains last longer, but are often harder to replace. Being heavier, the chain robs more power, but is also less likely to fail. The camshaft of a four stroke engine must rotate at half crankshaft speed, so some form of reduction gearing is needed and a direct drive from the crankshaft isn't possible. Alternatives to chain drives include gear trains, bevel gear and shaft drives, or toothed flexible belt drives.

Transfer case A transfer case is a part of a four wheel drive system found in four wheel drive and all wheel drive vehicles. The transfer case is connected to the transmission and also to the front and rear axles by means of drive shafts. It is also referred to as a "transfer gearcase", "transfer gearbox","transfer box" or "jockey box" (Australia).

'Silent chain' drives inside a 1912 gearbox

The transfer case receives power from the transmission and sends it to both the front and rear axles. This can be done with a set of gears, but the majority of transfer cases manufactured today are chain driven.[1] On some vehicles, such as four wheel drive trucks or vehicles intended for off-road use, this feature is controlled by the driver. The driver can put the transfer case into either "two wheel drive" or "four wheel drive" mode. This is sometimes accomplished by means of a shifter, similar to that in a manual transmission. On some vehicles this may be electronically operated by a switch instead. Some vehicles, such as all wheel drive sports cars, have transfer cases that are not selectable. Such a transfer case is permanently "locked" into all-wheel-drive mode. The transfer case may contain one or more sets of low range gears. Low range gears are engaged with a shifter or electronic switch. On many transfer cases, this shifter is the same as the one that selects 2WD or 4WD operation. Low range gears slow down the vehicle and increase the torque available at the axles. Low-range gears are used during slow-speed or extreme off road maneuvers, such as rockcrawling, or when pulling a heavy load. This feature is often absent on all wheel drive sports cars. Some very large vehicles, such as heavy equipment or military trucks, have more than one low-range gear. Chain-driven transfer cases use a chain to drive most often only one axle, but can drive both axles. Chain-driven transfer cases are quieter and lighter than gear-driven ones. They are used in vehicles such as compact trucks, full size trucks, Jeeps and SUVs. Some off-road driving enthusiasts modify their vehicles to use gear-driven transfer cases, accepting the additional weight and noise to gain the extra strength they generally provide.