Design and Operation of Heat Exchangers

Outline
Introduction and purpose of the course
Importance of heat transfer Different types of heat transfer equipments Types of heat exchangers Design procedure of heat exchangers Operation of heat exchangers ( start up and shutdown) Problems and testing of heat exchangers

Maintenance of heat exchangers

Introduction & Purpose of the course

Importance of heat transfer 1-To control the rate of chemical reactions [exothermic and endothermic reactions] 2-To control mass transfer operations [distillation, evaporation] 3-Power generation [steam boilers]

Types of heat transfer equipments

1. Indirect heat transfer equipments [heat exchangers, heaters, coolers, vaporizers, condensers, evaporators, cooler condenser, boilers, waste heat boiler, chiller.] 2. Direct heat transfer equipments [cooling towers] What is the difference?

Classification of heat exchangers

The principle Types of heat exchangers

1. Double pipe heat exchangers

2. Shell and tube heat exchangers

3. Plate and frame heat exchangers

4. plate fin heat exchangers

5. Air cooled heat exchangers

6. Spiral heat exchangers

7. Fired heaters [boilers]

1-Double pipe heat exchanger Construction

1-Double pipe heat exchanger

Hairpin unit

Flow patterns
1-Co current flow [parallel flow]

2- counter current flow

3-Cross flow
Intermediate effectiveness between parallel flow and couterflow exchangers. [not used with double pipe]

Why is counter current flow is more efficient than co-current flow? Because counter current flow can have the hottest cold fluid temperature greater than the coldest hot fluid temperature

How to improve the efficiency of the double pipe H.X? If a fluid with a poor heat transfer coefficient [oil or air] is to be cooled, an axially finned pipe can be placed inside of the larger pipe. Hairpin units can be connected in series or parallel to give the desired capacity.

Double pipe H.X in series

Double pipe H.X in parallel

Advantage of double pipe H.X 1. No expansion loops are required 2. Modular design allows for the addition of sections at a later time or the rearrangement of sections for new services.

3. Simple construction leads to ease of cleaning, inspection, and tube element replacement.
4. Can handle high pressure

Dissadvantages
1. Multiple hairpin sections are not always economically competitive with a single shell and tube heat exchanger. 2. Proprietary closure design requires special gaskets.

2-Shell and tube heat exchanger

The most common used type.why? 1. The configuration gives a large surface area in a small volume (i.e. compact)

2. Can be constructed from a wide range of materials

3. Well established design procedure

2-Shell and tube heat exchanger

Types of shell and tube heat exchangers: I. Fixed tube sheet (plate) II. U- tube III. Internal floating head without clamp ring IV. Internal floating head with clamp ring V. External floating head

VI. Kettle re-boiler with U- tube bundle

I. Fixed tube sheet (plate) H.X

Main components

I. Fixed tube sheet (plate) H.X

WHEN TO USE THIS TYPE

1-Used where the shell side fouling is limited .why?

2-Used where small temperature difference is required [up to 80 C].why?

Heat exchanger standard and codes

TEMA standards [tubular heat association] are universally used. exchanger manufacture

1.Tubes
A.Dimensions i.Tube diameter Tube diameters in the range of 16 to 50 mm . When to use small diameters and when to use large diameters?

ii. Tube thickness

Internal pressure Corrosion rate

The tube thickness depends on two parameter

Standard dimensions for steel tubes

Outside diameter (mm) 1.2 16

Wall thickness (mm) 1.6 2.0 ---

20
25 30 38 50

------

1.6
1.6 1.6 ---

2.0
2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0

2.6
2.6 2.6 2.6 2.6

-3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2

iii. Tube length

The preferred lengths of tubes for shell and tube heat exchangers are 6, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 ft. As the length increase, the shell diameter decrease, this will result in a lower cost H.X, but at the expense of pressure drop why???

B. Tube arrangements (layouts)

Exchanger tubes can be installed in a variety of patterns Triangular (higher heat transfer rate but at the expense of higher P) Square (used when the conditions require low P and for heavily fouling fluids but low heat transfer rate is obtained) Rotated square (as triangular layout but at a lower heat transfer rate since low number of tubes are used in a given area)

Tube layouts

triangula r

pitch Squar e

The recommended tube pitch is 1.25 times the tube outside diameter

Rotate d square

Example Square layout

C. Tube joints and tube sheet

The tube joint is the connection between the tube and the tube sheet The better the fit at the tube joint, the less the possibility that there is leakage Tube joints are either rolled press fit or welded

Rolled press fit

Welded

Used with the metals that Used for severe service can not be welded (high pressures) Make a very good seal An exchanger is likely to Can be used in a be more expensive if the reasonably higher tube joints are welded. pressure up to 2000 psi. Why? (cost of welding-a wider tube spacing will be needed)

The tube sheet

The tube sheet forms the barrier between the shell and tube fluids.

It is essential for safety or process reason to prevent any possibility of intermixing due to leakage at the tube sheet joint . To reduce the possibility for leakage, double tube sheets can be used with the space between the sheets vented.
To allow sufficient thickness to seal the tubes, the tube sheet thickness should not be less than the tube outside diameter. Recommended minimum tube sheet thickness are given in the standards

Tube side passes

The fluid in the tube is usually directed to flow back and forth in a number of passes through groups of tubes arranged in parallel, to increase the length of the flow path. The number of the passes is selected tom give the required tube design velocity

v 2 d n 4

ntotal n n passes

Examples
Single Pass

Double Pass

Multipass

Shells
Shells are fabricated from steel pipes for small diameters or rolled steel plates for large diameters. The shell diameter is ranged from 6 in. to 60 in. For pressure applications the shell thickness would be size according to the pressure vessel design standard The shell diameter must be selected to give as close a fit to the tube bundle as is practical to reduce bypassing round the outside of the bundle.

Shell types[ passes]

Shell side flow arrangements are generally one of the following illustrated

E
One shell pass

F
Two shell pass

H
Split flow Longitudinal baffles Double split flow

J
Divided flow

X
Cross flow

Shell types [passes]

Shell side flow arrangements are generally one of the following illustrated in the table

One pass shell [E shell] The most commonly used type in which the shell side fluid enters one end of the exchanger, flow through the exchanger, and exits through the opposite end of the exchanger.
Two pass shell or double pass shell [F shell] Require that fluid enters and exits through the same end of the exchanger. This type is used where the shell and tube side temp difference will be unsuitable for a single pass. The flow arrangement can be achieved by using two shells

Split flow [G shell] Divides incoming shell fluid into two separate streams
Double split flow [H shell] Divides incoming shell fluid into four separate streams Divided flow [J shell] Shell fluid enters at the center or middle of the exchanger rather than at the end. NOTE: The divided flow and split flow arrangements are used to reduce the shell side pressure drop. The kettle type re-boiler [K shell] Has divided flow and a dome outlet for vapors

Example Split flow type

Factors affecting the choice of the shell arrangements The amount of cooling and heating required The pressure drop The type of service [for instance the shell arrangement that provides space for vapors to accumulate is the kettle type re-boiler

Kettle type Re-boiler

Baffles
Why are baffles used?
To support the tube

To direct the fluid stream across the tube

To improve the rate of heat transfer Shell

Tubes

Baffle

Segmental baffles
The most common used type. Segmental baffles are drilled plates with heights ranged from 55 to 85 percent of the inside shell diameter. If the height of the baffle is 85 percent of the shell inside diameter this is known as 15 percent cut baffles

The baffle cut is the height of the segment removed to form the baffle expressed as a percentage of the baffle disc diameter
The optimum baffle cut was found to be in the range of 20 to 25 % (which give good heat transfer without excessive pressure drop). Segmental baffles may be arranged to give up and down flow [horizontal baffles] or may be rotated 90 to provide side by side flow [vertical baffles]

Baffle pitch or baffle spacing

The center to center distance between baffles is called the baffle pitch or baffle spacing, which affect the fluid velocity through the shell. The baffle spacing range from 0.2 to 1.0 times the shell inside diameter. Close baffle spacing will give higher heat transfer coefficient but at the expense of higher pressure drop
Optimum spacing was found in the range of 0.3 to 0.5 times the shell inside diameter.

How are the baffles held securely?

By means of baffle spacer which consists of throughbolts screwed into the tube sheet (tie rods) and a number of smaller lengths of pipe which form shoulders between adjacent baffles. The number of rods required will depend on the shell diameter

U-tube heat exchanger or U bend exchanger

Isometric view for U-tube exchanger

U-tube heat exchanger or U bend exchanger

As the drawing shows, a U-tube exchanger has only one tube sheet integrated with the tube bundle [the tube bundle in the form of hairpin tubes and the tube sheet form one unit] The tube bundle can be removed from the shell for cleaning [outside cleaning].

A tube side header and a shell with integral shell cover which is welded to the shell are provided.
Each tube is free to expand or contract without any limitations being placed upon it by the other tube.

When to use this type?

It is used where the temperature difference between the shell side and tube side fluids is quite great.WHY? Because the tubes are free to expand since the tube bundle is fastened to only one tube sheet.

Flow patterns in a U-tube exchanger:

The baffle dividing the channel (pass partition) directs incoming tube side fluid through only the upper half of the tube openings. Tube side fluid flow through the tubes around the bend and through the lower chamber. Tube side flow in this case is two pass flow, while the shell side flow is one pass flow

Advantages and disadvantages of U-tube exchanger

Advantages
The U-tube has the advantage of providing minimum clearance between the outer tube limit and the inside of the shell for any of the removable tube bundle constructions. The U-tube design offers the advantage of reducing the number of joints. In high pressure constructions this feature becomes of considerable importance in reducing both initial and maintenance cost. The tube bundle in a U-tube exchanger is free to expand [i.e. no thermal expansion problem]

Disadvantages
The bend in the tube inhibits cleaning and inspection inside of the tube [makes it difficult] The number of tube holes in a given shell is less than that for a fixed tube sheet exchanger because of limitations on bending tubes of a very short radius [i.e. low area of heat transfer for the same volume of fixed tube sheet heat exchanger]

III. Internal floating head without clamp ring

III. Internal floating head without clamp ring [Pull through type]
In this exchanger two tube sheets are used, one tube sheet is bolted between the channel and the shell in a fixed position while the other tube sheet with a cover float inside the shell
This design allows the following 1. The tubes are free to expand or contract [no stresses caused by thermal expansion]
2. The exchanger can be used for high temperature differences

3. All parts of the exchanger can be inspected and cleaned [can be used with fouling fluids]

Disadvantages
The clearance between the shell and the tube bundle is large which leads to: 1. No tubes can occupy this space, so the space is wasted 2. Fluid is likely to move through the space rather than past the tube [i.e. reduce the exchanger efficiency]

IV. Internal floating head with clamp ring

IV. Internal floating head with clamp ring More efficient but expensive
In this type a split backing ring is used to held the tube sheet to the tube cover The use of the split ring allows the use of more tubes and reduce the space between the shell and the tube bundle Note The diameter of the shell cover is greater than the diameter of the rest of the shell holding the tubes

Comparison between pull through type and split backing ring

Pull through type Cheap Clearance between the shell and the tube bundle is large Less tubes can be used in the same space Less efficient Less parts form the H.X Easy to disassemble

Split backing ring Expensive Small clearance More tubes can be used More efficient More parts Harder to disassemble

TEMA type designation for shell and tube heat exchanger

Allocation of fluids Tube side

1. Put dirty stream on the tube side [fouling fluid] - easier to clean inside the tubes
2. Put high pressure stream in the tubes to avoid thick, expensive shell 3. When special materials required for one stream, put that one in the tubes to avoid expensive shell 4. Put corrosive fluid in the tube tom reduce the cost of expensive shell 5. Put toxic fluid in the tube to minimize leakage

Shell-Side 1. Viscous fluid to increase (generally) the value of "U [Cross flow gives higher coefficients than in plane tubes, hence put fluid with lowest coefficient on the shell side] 2. Fluid having the lowest flow rate 3. Condensing or boiling fluid

Note
If no obvious benefit, try streams both ways and see which gives best design

Start up and shut down

On initial start up and shut down the heat exchanger can be subjected to damaging thermal shock, over pressure or hydraulic hammer This can lead to leaky tube to tube sheet joints, damaged expansion joints because of excessive thermal expansion of the tubes or the shell Excessive shell side flow rates can cause tube vibrations and catastrophic failure

Start up procedure
1. Check all parts of the heat exchanger [no loose bolts, all valves in The shut position
2. Testing the heat exchanger for leakage Hydrostatic test Soap bubble test 3. Purging of the heat exchanger [before adding a liquid or a gaseous hydrocarbon to an exchanger inert gas is used to air or liquids from the exchanger to avoid the possibility of explosion] 4. Any temperature change should be made slowly because the shell and the tubes are made of different materials and do expand at different rates causing the tubes to be loosened from the tube sheet or may be broken or ruptured so during start up cold fluid is introduced first, then hot fluid is gradually added and the heat exchanger is brought to the operating temperature

Note about testing for leaks

There another tests that can be performed while the heat exchanger in service [without dismantling] such Tests can be run on either the tube or the shell side namely 1. Physical test [visual test] If the two fluids in the H.X have different physical properties, the easiest way to test for leaks is to take a sample from the lower pressure fluid, then it is easy to see if there is a leak by just looking to the sample 2. Chemical test used if the fluids are very similar

Shut down procedure

During shutdown, the flow of hot fluid is stopped first. With no input of the hot fluid the heat exchanger gradually cools. Then the flow of cold fluid is stopped The heat exchanger should not be valved closed while it is full of fluids Just like a solid, a liquid expands when it is heated and its volume increase. If the expanding liquid is enclosed, it exerts force or pressure on its container. Therefore a filled exchanger which is valved closed can be damaged by expanding fluid

Recommended general start up and shut down procedures

Heat exchangers problems

Exchanger fouling Corrosion vibration

Exchanger fouling
You have to know the following
Definition of fouling

Types of fouling
Effect of fouling on the H.X performance

Troubles that indicate the presence of fouling

Factors affecting the kind and degree of fouling

How to handle the problem of fouling

 Definition of fouling Build up of various kinds of deposits on the parts of an exchanger Types of fouling
1. Salt deposit [as Ca and Mg deposits in case of hard water]

2. Chemical fouling [as corrosion products]

3. Biological fouling [as growth of algae which form insulating layer] 4. Coking

 Effect of fouling on the H.X performance

1. Increase the thermal resistance and reduce the rate of heat transfer [decrease the efficiency of the H.X] 2. Increase the surface roughness [the flow of the fluid is restricted] and increase the pressure drop

Troubles that indicate the presence of fouling

1. Change in temperature or pressure

2. Change in flowrate [outlet flow rate]

Factors affecting the kind and degree of fouling

1. The materials used in the heat exchanger
Some materials corrode faster than others providing corrosion products which decrease heat transfer Rough surface provides cavities for the build up of deposits

2. Fluid velocity Affect the fouling rate [as the velocity increase the fouling rate decrease]

How to handle the problem of fouling

Antifoulants prevent the formation of deposits

Inhibitors [as corrosion inhibitors] prevent chemical reactions which might cause deposits to build up
Frequent cleaning of the H.X [maintenance]

Corrosion of heat exchangers

Another series problem in heat exchangers is corrosion
Severe corrosion can and does occur in tubing and very often with common fluids such as water

To avoid corrosion
Proper material selection based on full analysis of the operating fluids, velocities and temperatures is a must Heavier gauge tubing is specified to offset the effect of corrosion followed by proper start up operating and shut down procedure Protection of the heat exchanger from corrosion [e.g.cathodic protection] Treatment of the cooling water used and using inhibitors

Heat exchangers vibration

Vibration of the tubes as a result of the flow of the shell side past them is important phenomena specially when the H.X size and flow quantities of flow are increased

Vibration effects
Vibration has a bad effect on both tubes and shell The joints between the tubes and tube sheet can fail due to vibration causing leakage

It causes leakage in the joints between shell and tubes

Increase the shut down time to repair the H.X

Factors affecting tube vibration

Tubes geometry [layout] Material of construction Means of support Heat exchanger size Flow quantities

How to avoid vibration

Using inlet support baffles

Using double segmental baffles [improve tube support]

Using j shell type [ divided flow type to reduce the shell velocity]

Inlet support baffles

Double-segmental baffles

Air cooled heat exchanger

Used for cooling and condensation and used when cooling water is in short supply or expensive They can also be competitive with water cooled units even when water is plentiful Most common used in petroleum and gas processing industries Main components Air cooled exchangers consist of banks of finned tubes over which air is blown or drawn by fans mounted below or above the tube If the fan is mounted below the tubes the unit is termed forced draft unit and if the fan is mounted above the tubes the unit is termed induced daft

Air cooled heat exchanger

Forced draft air cooled heat exchanger [cross flow]

Some design data

The height of the bundle aboveground must be one half of the tube length

The standard air velocity passing through the tube bundle generally ranges from 1.5 to 3.6 m/s
The 25.4 mm outside diameter tube is most commonly used. Fin heights vary from 12.7 to 15.9 mm, fin spacing from 2.3 to 3.6 mm , and tube triangular pitch from 50.8 to 63.5 mm Tube lengths vary and may be as great as 18.3 m When tube length exceed 12.2 m three fans are generally installed

Finned tubes

Forced draft unit

Forced draft unit

Less power is required Offer better accessibility to the fan for on stream maintenance Structural costs are less than induced draft since the fan is not exposed to the hot air Mechanical life is longer

Induced draft unit

Induced draft unit

Provide more even distribution of air across the bundle, since air velocity approaching the bundle is relatively low
This design permits close approach of the product temperature to ambient air temperature In service in which sudden temperature change would cause upset and loss of product, the induced draft unit gives more protection in that only a fraction of the surface is exposed to rainfall

Advantages of air cooled exchanger

Simple mechanical in design
The cooling medium [air] is always available and require no treatment Air side fouling is ignored [less fouling problem] Low maintenance cost

Disadvantage of air cooled exchanger

Noise The performance is affected by the weather fluctuations High capital cost

Spiral heat exchanger

Spiral heat exchanger

A spiral heat exchanger can be considered as a plate heat exchanger in which the plates are formed into a spiral
The fluids flows through the channels formed between the plates Spiral heat exchangers are compact units, the maximum operating pressure is limited to 20 bar and the temperature to 400 oC For a given duty the pressure drop over a spiral heat exchanger will usually be lower than that for the equivalent shell and tube exchanger Can be used with dirty process fluids and slurries since they are easily cleaned and the turbulence in the channels is high

Spiral heat exchangers give true counter current flow and can be used where the temperature correction factor for a shell and tube exchanger would be too low

Advantages of spiral H.X over shell and tube H.X

Can be used for cooling and heating of slurries or sludge and liquid containing fibrous materials Gives good fluid distribution Foul at much lower rates than shell and tube H.X and if fouling does occur, it can be effectively cleaned chemically Spiral plates avoid the problem of differential expansion Enables close temperature approaches and precise temperature control The spiral heat exchanger is compact The possibility of leakage is much less than shell and tube H.X [because the plates are thicker than the tube wall]

Disadvantages
The maximum pressure is limited [20 bar] A leak can not be plugged as in the shell and tube H.X

Repairs of the inner parts of the plates is complicated

Flow patterns in plate heat exchanger

The plate-and-frame heat exchanger has emerged as a viable alternative to shell and-tube exchangers for many applications throughout the chemical process industries.
Such units are comprised of a series of plates, mounted in a frame and clamped together. Space between adjacent plates form flow channels, and the system is arranged so that hot and cold fluids enter and exit through flow channels at the four comers Within the exchanger, an alternating gasket arrangement diverts the hot and cold fluids from each inlet into an alternating sequence of flow channels. In this arrangement, each cell of heat transfer media is separated by a thin metal wall, allowing heat to transfer easily from one media to the other.

Advantages of plate heat exchanger

High heat transfer rate [gives efficient counter current flow typically yield heat transfer coefficient three to five times other types of H.X More compact design is possible for a certain capacity Can be used for more than one duty by adding or remove plates [flexible]

Low maintenance cost since the plates can be easily removed

Can be easily opened for inspection and cleaning [accessibility]

Disadvantages

High pressure drop because of the narrow passageways in the plate heat exchanger [making the H.X incompatible high volume gas applications Cant be easily fouled
Cant not be used with all fluids [some fluids affect the gasket material as organic solvents