CNW N+ 3rd Dec 2012 CNW Batch

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Copyright UTL Technologies Ltd 2011 All rights reserved
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An Introduction to Networking
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Introducing Networks A network is an interconnection of a group of computers that can communicate and share resources such as hard disks and printers. A network is a group of computers and other devices that are connected by some type of transmission media. The initial idea of a network was perceived by Department of Defense (DOD) in USA for the purpose of security. Some advantages of networks are:
Sharing of information across the network Optimum utilization of hardware resources Centralization of data management
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How Networks Are Used File services: capability of a server to share data files, applications, and disk storage space. Print services: used to share printers across a network. Communications services: Allow remote users to connect to the
remote network.
Mail services: Transfer of e-mail between users on a network. Internet services: Supplying Web pages, file transfer capabilities, and a means for directly logging on to other computers on the Internet. Management services: centrally administer management tasks on the network like Traffic monitoring and control.
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Understanding Internetworking Servers Internetworking services are the services in a networking environment that are accessible to users within an intranet or the Internet. The following are some of the services provided by the Internetworking servers:
File Transfer WWW E-mail
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Network Topologies
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Network Topologies Network topology is a schematic layout or a map of the arrangement of nodes over a network. This layout also determines the manner in which information is exchanged within the network. There are five types of network topologies:
Bus Star Ring Mesh Cellular
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Bus Topology The bus topology connects all the nodes on a network to a main cable called bus. In the bus topology, each packet that is placed on the bus contains the address of the destination node and is transmitted in both directions along the bus. A single high capacity cable is required thus requiring minimum cabling and its cost. Entire cable setup needs to be reconfigured to add a node. Time consuming process to troubleshoot as every point needs to be checked to locate the fault.
The Bus Topology

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Bus Topology (Continued)
A Terminated Bus Topology
network
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Star Topology The star topology connects nodes over a network using a central control unit called the hub. Nodes to a star-based network can be easily attached to the hub. All the nodes are connected to the hub thus requiring lot of cabling and cost. A faulty hub can disrupt the entire network.
The Star Topology

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Star Topology (Continued)
A Typical Star Topology Network
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Ring Topology The ring topology connects the nodes on a network through a point-to-point connection. Easy to locate cable faults in a ring. The entire network stops functioning, if any of the nodes in the network malfunctions.
The Ring Topology
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Ring Topology (Continued)
A Typical Ring Topology Network
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Mesh Topology The mesh topology involves point-to-point connection between every node in the network. High reliable as network connectivity does not depend on any one node. Useful for large network connections. Involves high installation and setup costs due to elaborate cabling required to connect each node with the other node. Difficult to manage as the size of the network increases.
The Mesh Topology

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Cellular Topology The cellular topology is a wireless topology, where geographic area is divided into cells or regions. In cellular topology, each cell is a separate entity that is controlled by a central station. Operates on wireless media, thus do not require cabling. Easy to install as only requirement is the availability of a central location and signal strength.
Cell Node
The Cellular Topology

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Network Categories
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Network Categories
The resources and software capabilities that nodes in a network share are commonly known as services. Networks are categorized as:
Peer-to-peer Client / Server
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Peer-to-Peer Networks In a peer-to-peer network, there is no specific distinction between a client and a server. Every computer can communicate directly with every other computer. By default, no computer has more authority than another. Every computer is capable of sending and receiving information to and from every other computer. The following figure illustrates the peer-to-peer network:
The Peer-to-Peer Network
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Peer-to-Peer Networks (Continued)
Resource sharing on a Simple Peer-to-Peer Network
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Client / Server Networks In a client / server network, the requests are processed centrally by one or more servers. The server is a system with high processing power, which provides services for the other computers in a network. The client is a system that accesses resources available on a server. In a client / server network setup, the server is responsible for processing the requests sent by the clients.
The Client / Server Network

The Client-Server Network Setup
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Client / Server Networks (Continued)
Resource sharing on a Client / Server Network
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Client / Server Networks (Continued) Advantages of using client/server networks over peer-to-peer networks:
User logon accounts and passwords can be assigned in one place. Access to multiple shared resources can be centrally granted to a single user or groups of users. Problems can be tracked, diagnosed, and often fixed from one location. Servers are optimized to handle heavy processing loads and dedicated to handling requests from clients, enabling faster response time. Because of their efficient processing and larger disk storage, servers can connect more than a handful of computers on a network. To function as a server, a computer must be running a network operating system (NOS).
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Elements of Client / Server Networks Client Server Network interface card (NIC) NOS Connectivity device
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Network Operating Systems
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Network Operating System Network Operating System (NOS) is an enhanced version of an operating system, with features that allow the management and connectivity of nodes within a network. NOS allows the sharing of information and resources based on the accessibility privileges allocated to each user or node. Popular NOSs include:
Windows Server 2008 R2 UNIX Linux
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Functions of Network Operating System Centrally manage network resources, such as programs, data, and devices. Allow remote users to connect to a network. Allow users to connect to other networks. Secure access to a network. Data backup & restore. Allow for simple additions of clients and resources. Monitor status and functionality of network elements. Distribute programs and software updates to clients. Provide fault tolerance in case of a hardware or software problem.
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Windows Server 2008 R2 Windows Server 2008 R2 is a 64-bit operating system. It is a Microsoft product, which operates on single and multiprocessor systems. The features of the Windows Server 2008 R2 operating system are as follows:
Active Directory Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) Terminal services NTFS Windows Deployment Services Hyper V IPv6 Implementation
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UNIX Bell Labs launched the UNIX network operating system. Many versions of UNIX, such as Sun Solaris, AIX UNIX, HP UNIX, and BSD, are available in the market. Some of the features of UNIX, which allow networking at the operating system level, are:
Internet-based services Compatibility with different protocols Network security
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LINUX The Linux network operating system, developed by Linus Torvalds, is based on the UNIX architecture. Linux is an open source operating system in which the source code or the program of the operating system is available free of cost. This provides flexibility to the user to modify the operating system according to individual requirements. Linux provides services like Apache, Samba and NFS.
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Types of Network
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Types of Network Depending on the size and the area that networks cover, the networks are primarily categorized into the following types:
Local Area Networks (LANs) Wide Area Networks (WANs)
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Local Area Network A LAN is a small-scale network that extends over relatively small distances. The following figure depicts a typical LAN setup:
Node1
Node 2
Node 3
Typical LAN Setup
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Wide Area Network A Wide Area Network (WAN) provides network connectivity spanning across large geographical area, such as across states, countries, or across the globe. The following figure depicts WAN connectivity between two buildings at Miami and Texas, across the Internet using the services of a service provider.
The WAN Connectivity
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Transmission Basics
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Transmission Direction There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to the direction of the exchanges:
Simplex Half-Duplex Full-Duplex (Duplex)
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Transmission Direction (Continued) Simplex: signals may travel in only one direction.
Half-Duplex: signals may travel in both directions over a medium but only one direction at a time.
Full-Duplex or Duplex: signals free to travel in both directions over a medium simultaneously.
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Bandwidth In computer networking bandwidth refers to the data rate supported by a network connection. In the field of electrical engineering, bandwidth represents the difference between highest and lowest frequencies that a medium can transmit.
Bandwidth represents the capacity of the connection.

The greater the capacity, the more likely that greater performance will follow, though overall performance also depends on other factors, such as latency. We most commonly expresses bandwidth in terms of bits per second (bps).
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Latency Delay between transmission and receipt of a signal.
Many possible causes: Cable length Inter connectivity device e.g. routers.
Round Trip Time (RTT) Time for packets to go from sender to receiver and back.
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Throughput In communication networks, network throughput is the average rate of successful message delivery over a communication channel. The throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bps).
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Baseband In Baseband networks a digital signal is placed directly on the transmission medium without requiring a carrier, i.e. without modulation. Only one signal may be present on the baseband channel at a time. Baseband networks may use twisted pair, coaxial cable, or optical fiber for data transmission.
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Broadband A term used to describe a network that can transmit a wide range of signals, including audio and video. Broadband networks are especially useful in the Networked World, as they can carry many signals at once, resulting in faster data transmission.
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Transmission Flaws (Noise) Electro Magnetic Interference: also called Radio Frequency Interference RFI) is a disturbance that affects an electrical circuit due to either electromagnetic induction or electromagnetic radiation emitted from an external source such as electrical devices or cables. Crosstalk: refers to electromagnetic interference from one unshielded twisted pair to another twisted pair, normally running in parallel. In that case signal traveling on a wire or cable infringes on signal traveling over adjacent wire or cable. Certain amount of signal noise is unavoidable. All forms of noise measured in decibels (db).
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Attenuation Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength of a signal. Attenuation occurs with any type of signal, whether digital or analog. Sometimes called loss, attenuation is a natural consequence of signal transmission over long distances.
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Transmission Media
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Transmission Media The physical channel that is used for connecting the components of a network, such as nodes and printers, is known as transmission medium. The types of transmission media include the following:
Cables Wireless
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Cables Cables are the conventional media used to setup networks.
There are three types of cables:
Coaxial Cables Twisted Pair Cables Fiber-optic Cables
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Coaxial Cables These cables are designed in such a manner that the center conductor and the outside braided metal shield share a common axis.
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Twisted Pair Cables These cables use copper wires, which are good conductors of electricity. Color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. Twist ratio: twists per meter or foot. Higher twist ratio reduces crosstalk and increases attenuation
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Types of Twisted Pair Cables There are two types of twisted pair cables:
Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP)
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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) These cables consist of multiple twisted pairs (TPs) surrounded by an insulator shield. This insulator shield, in turn, is covered with a plastic encasement.
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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) (Continued)
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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) These cables consist of a set of twisted pairs that are covered with a plastic jacket, as shown in the following figure. Most common form of cabling found on LANs today. TIA/EIA 568 standard divides twisted-pair wiring into several categories: CAT 3, 4, 5, 5e, 6, 6e, 7
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Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) CAT 3 (Category 3): up to 10 Mbps of throughput CAT 4 (Category 4): 16 Mbps throughput CAT 5 (Category 5): up to 1000 Mbps throughput CAT 5e (Enhanced Category 5): higher twist ratio CAT 6 (Category 6): six times the throughput of CAT 5 CAT 6e (Enhanced Category 6): reduced attenuation and crosstalk CAT 7 (Category 7): signal rates up to 1 GHz
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Comparing STP & UTP STP cables are shielded while UTP cables are unshielded. STP cables are more immune to interference and noise than UTP cables. STP cables are better at maximizing bandwidth compared to UTP cables. STP cables cost more per meter compared to UTP cables. STP cables are heavier per meter compared to UTP cables. UTP cables are more prevalent in SOHO networks while STP is used in more high-end networks.
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Fiber-optic These cables are based on fiber optic technology, which uses light rays instead of electricity to transmit data. The following figure shows a fiber-optic cable. Contains glass or plastic fibers at core surrounded by layer of glass or plastic cladding. Reflects light back to core.
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Types of Fiber-optic Fiber-optic cables can be differentiated into the following two categories: Single-mode Multimode
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Single Mode Fiber Narrow core through which laser-generated light travels over one path, reflecting very little. Accommodates high bandwidths and long distances. Expensive.
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Multi Mode Fiber Multi-mode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber mostly used for communication over short distances, such as within a building or on a campus.
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Benefits over copper cabling Nearly unlimited throughput. Transmission rates exceed 10 Gigabits per second. Very high resistance to noise. Excellent security. Ability to carry signals for much longer distances before requiring repeaters than copper cable. Cost: most expensive transmission medium. Connector: uses 10 different types of connectors. Typically use SC, ST & MTRJ connectors. Noise immunity: unaffected by EMI. Size and scalability: segment lengths vary from 150 to 40,000 meters. Industry standard for high-speed networking.
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Wireless Transmission The wireless technology helps connect distant networks, without needing to physically set up cables between the destination and the source point. In a wireless setup, the atmosphere is used to transmit and receive signals in the form of electro-magnetic waves through an antenna. These electro-magnetic waves can be transmitted through different types of wireless transmission carriers, which include the following:
Radio: Radio transmissions operate on radio waves. Radio waves are only limited to low transmission capacities, from 1 Mbps to 10 Mbps. Microwave: Microwaves transmit data over a higher bandwidth as compared to radio transmissions. Infrared: Infrared transmissions use infrared radiation to transmit data. Infrared is an electro-magnetic radiation.
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Connectors & Media Converters
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Connectors for Coaxial Cable
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Connectors for UTP Cable
RJ45 Connector for UTP Cable
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Connectors for Fiber-optic Cable
MTRJ
SC
ST
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Media Converters Media converters are simple networking devices that make it possible to connect two dissimilar media types such as twisted pair with fiber optic cabling.
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OSI Reference Model
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The OSI Model Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
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Note: ISO is the organization. OSI is the model
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The OSI Model
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Why a Layered Network Model?
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
Reduces complexity (one big problem to seven smaller ones) Standardizes networking Simplifies teaching and learning
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OSI layers
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An exchange using the OSI model
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Physical layer
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Note: The physical layer is responsible for the movement of individual bits from one node to the next.
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Data link layer
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Note: The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
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Hop-to-hop delivery
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Network layer
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Note: The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the source host to the destination host.
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Source-to-destination delivery
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Transport layer
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Note: The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from one process to another.
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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
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Session layer
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Note: Session layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating the communication between the two nodes.
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Presentation layer
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Note: Presentation layer is responsible for encoding & decoding, compression & decompression, encryption & decryption of data.
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Application layer
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Note: Application layer provides the interface between the user and the network.
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Summary of layers
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Application Layer
Application
Provides network access to application programs (such as electronic mail, file transfer)
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Presentation Layer
7 6
Application
Network access to application programs Data representation Ensures data is readable by receiving system Format of data Negotiates data transfer syntax for application layer
Presentation
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Session Layer
7 6 5
Application
Network services to applications Data representation Inter-host communication Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications
Presentation
Session
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Transport Layer
7 6 5
Application
Network services to applications Data representation Inter-host communication End-to-end connection reliability Concerned with data transport issues between hosts Data transport reliability Establishes, maintains, and terminates virtual circuits Error detection and recovery Information flow control
Presentation
Session
Transport
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Network Layer
7 6 5
Application
Network services to applications Data representation Inter-host communication End-to-end connection reliability Addresses and best path Define Logical addressing and path selection between two end systems Routing of packets
Presentation
Session
4
3
Transport
Network
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Data Link Layer 7 6 5 4 Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Network services to applications Data representation
Inter-host communication End-to-end connection reliability

Addresses and best path Access to media Physical addressing, error notification, flow control
3
2
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Physical Layer 7
Application
Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
Network services to applications
6
5 4 3 2 1
Data representation
Inter-host communication End-to-end connection reliability
Addresses and best path

Access to media Binary transmission Wires, connectors, data rates
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Communication
Host A
7 6 Application Presentation
Host B Application Presentation
5
4 3
Session
Transport Network Segments Packets Frames Bits
Session
Transport Network
2
1
Data Link
Physical
Data Link
Physical
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Data Encapsulation
Host A
Application Presentation
Host B
Session
Transport Network Data Link Physical
} {
Data
Session
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Data Encapsulation (Continued)
Host A
Host B
Session
} {
Data Network Data Header
Session
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Host A
Host B
Session
} {
Data Network Data Header Frame Header Network Header Frame Trailer Data
Session
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Host A
Host B
Session
} {
Data Network Data Header Frame Header Network Header Frame Trailer Data
Session
0101101010110001
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Host Layers
7 6 5 4 3
Application Presentation Session Transport Network
Host layers: Provide accurate data delivery between computers.
2 1
Data Link Physical
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Media Layers
7 6 5 4 3
Application Presentation Session Transport Network
}
}
Host layers: Provide accurate data delivery between computers.
2 1
Data Link Physical
Media layers: Control physical delivery of messages over the network.
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Physical Layer The Physical layer specifies the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional requirements for activating, maintaining, and deactivating a physical link between end systems.
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Data Link Layer Data Link layer is divided into two sub layers: Media Access Control (MAC) Logical Link Control (LLC) The Data Link layer is responsible for the following aspects of communication: Providing unique identification (MAC address) to each node on the network. Transforming data bits from the Physical layer into groups called frames. Detecting errors that occur during a transmission.
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Data Link Layer (Continued)
The Data Link Layer and its Sub Layers
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Data Link Layer (Continued) Logical Link Control (LLC): Provides interface to Network layer protocols. Manages flow control. Media Access Control (MAC): Manages access to physical layer. Appends destination computers physical address onto data frame (MAC address, Data Link layer address, or hardware address).
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MAC Address (Physical Address, Hardware Address) 24 bits 24 bits
Vendor Code
Serial Number
0000.0c12. 3456
ROM RAM
MAC address is burned into ROM on a network interface card
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Data Link Layer (Continued)
A NICs MAC address
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Network Layer This layer is responsible for the following functions: Providing unique logical addresses to each node on the network. Transmitting data across networks. Controlling network traffic. Best Path Determination.
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Network Layer : Best Path Determination Layer 3 functions to find the best path through the internetwork.
Which Which Path? Path?
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Transport Layer
Establishes an end-to-end connection. Sends segments from one end host to another. Ensures data reliability. Organizing messages into segments or breaking segments into smaller segments. Delivering segments to the recipients. Providing error control.
large
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Transport Layer (Continued)
Sender
Receiver
Synchronize Negotiate Connection Synchronize
Acknowledge
Connection Established
Data Transfer
(Send Segments)
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Transmit
Sender Receiver
Stop
Not Ready
Buffer Full Process Segments
Go
Ready Resume Transmission
Buffer OK
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Window Size = 1
Send 1
Sender
Receive 1 Ack 2 Receive 2 Ack 3 Window Size = 3

Receiver
Send 2
Sender
Send 1 Send 2 Send 3 Send 4
Receive 1 Receive 2 Receive 3 Ack 4
Receiver
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Sender
Receiver
Send 1 Send 2 Send 3 Ack 4 Send 4 Send 5 Send 6 Ack 5 Send 5 Ack 7
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Transport Layer To Network Layer
End-to-End Segments
Routed Packets
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Session Layer
Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications.
Service Request Service Reply
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Presentation Layer Provides code formatting and conversion for applications.

login:
Text Data
ASCII EBCDIC Encrypted
Graphics Visual images

PICT TIFF JPEG GIF
Sound
MIDI
Video
MPEG QuickTime
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Application Layer Provides the interface between the user and the network.
COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
Word Processor Presentation Graphics Spreadsheet Database Design/Manufacturing Others
NETWORK APPLICATIONS
Electronic Mail File Transfer Remote Access Client-Server Process Network Management Others
INTERNETWORK APPLICATIONS
Electronic Data Interchange World Wide Web E-Mail Gateways
Special-Interest Bulletin Boards

Financial Transaction Services Internet Navigation Utilities Conferencing (Voice, Video, Data)
Others
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Functions of the OSI Layer
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Summary
OSI reference model describes building blocks of functions for program-to-program communications between similar or dissimilar hosts.
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What is Protocol? A protocol is a set of established and agreed-upon rules required to enable effective communication on a network. Protocols can either be developed by a vendor or by a networking standard organization. A protocol suite is a hierarchical collection of protocols. Some of the protocol suites are:
TCP/IP Protocol Suite IPX/SPX Protocol Suite AppleTalk Protocol Suite
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Introduction to TCP/IP (DoD Model)
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TCP/IP Model (DoD Model) The DoD model is basically a condensed version of the OSI model. Its composed of four, instead of seven, layers: 1) Process/Application layer 2) Host-to-Host layer (Transport layer) 3) Internet layer 4) Network Access layer
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Comparing The OSI Model and TCP/IP Model
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TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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Application Layer The TCP/IP protocol suite combines all application related issues into one layer and ensure this data is properly packaged before passing it on to the next layer. Handles high-level protocols, issues of representation, encoding, decoding and session control.
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Application Layer Protocols
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Host-to-Host Layer (Transport Layer) The main purpose of the Host-to-Host layer is to shield the upper- layer applications from the complexities of the network. This layer says to the upper layer, Just give me your data stream, with any instructions, and Ill begin the process of getting your information ready to send.
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Host-to-Host Layer (Transport Layer) Protocols
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Internet Layer The purpose of the Internet layer is to send packets from a network host and have them arrive at the destination node independent of the path taken.
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Internet Layer Protocols
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Network Access Layer . The network access layer is concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet requires to actually make a physical link to the transmission media. It includes the LAN and WAN technology details, and all the details contained in the OSI physical and data link layers.
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Network Access Layer Protocols
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Transmission Control Protocol
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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Creates a reliable connection between two computers.
TCP is one of the main protocol in TCP/IP protocol suite.

Whereas the IP protocol deals only with packets, TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams of data. TCP guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees that segment will be delivered in the same order in which they were sent.
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Note: A packet in TCP is called a segment.
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Key Features of TCP
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TCP 3 way Handshake
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TCP 3 way Handshake (Continued)
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Stream delivery
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TCP segment format
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Control field
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Description of flags
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Description of flags (Continued)
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Encapsulation and decapsulation
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A TCP Connection TCP is connection-oriented.
A connection-oriented transport protocol establishes a virtual path between the source and destination.
All of the segments belonging to a message are then sent over this virtual path. A connection-oriented transmission requires three phases:
Connection establishment Data transfer Connection termination
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Connection establishment using three-way handshaking
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Note: The bytes of data being transferred in each connection are numbered by TCP. The numbering starts with a randomly generated number.
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Note: The value of the acknowledgment field in a segment defines the number of the next byte a party expects to receive.
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Data transfer
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Connection termination using three-way handshaking
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Example 1
Suppose a TCP connection is transferring a file of 5000 bytes. The first byte is numbered 10001. What are the sequence numbers for each segment if data is sent in five segments, each carrying 1000 bytes? Solution The following shows the sequence number for each segment:
Segment 1 Sequence Number: 10,001 (range: 10,001 to 11,000) Segment 2 Sequence Number: 11,001 (range: 11,001 to 12,000) Segment 3 Sequence Number: 12,001 (range: 12,001 to 13,000) Segment 4 Sequence Number: 13,001 (range: 13,001 to 14,000) Segment 5 Sequence Number: 14,001 (range: 14,001 to 15,000)
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Aborting a connection
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Denying a connection
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Error Control TCP provides reliability using error control, which detects corrupted, lost, out-of-order, and duplicated segments. Error control in TCP is achieved through the use of the checksum, acknowledgment, and time-out.
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Note: Data may arrive out of order and be temporarily stored by the receiving TCP, but TCP guarantees that no out-of-order segment is delivered to the process.
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Note: In modern implementations, a retransmission occurs if the retransmission timer expires.
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Note:
No retransmission timer is set for an ACK segment.
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Normal operation
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Lost segment
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Note: The receiver TCP delivers only ordered data to the process.
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Fast retransmission
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Lost acknowledgment
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Flow Control & Congestion Control Flow control regulates the amount of data a source can send before receiving an acknowledgment from the destination. For that TCP defines a window size depending on the capability of receiving host. Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques to keep the load below the capacity. There are two algorithms for Congestion control in TCP: slow start algorithm congestion avoidance algorithm
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Slow start, exponential increase algorithm
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Note: In the slow start algorithm, the size of the congestion window increases exponentially until it reaches a threshold.
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Congestion avoidance, additive increase algorithm
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Note: In the congestion avoidance algorithm the size of the congestion window increases additively until congestion is detected.
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State Transition To keep track of all the different events happening during connection establishment, connection termination, and data transfer, the TCP software is implemented as a finite state machine.
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User Datagram Protocol (UDP) UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit handshaking dialogues for providing reliability, ordering, or data integrity. Thus, UDP provides an unreliable service and datagram's may arrive out of order, appear duplicated, or go missing without notice.
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Comparison of TCP and UDP
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Addresses in TCP/IP Three different levels of addresses are used in an internet: Physical address (MAC Address) Logical address (IP Address) Port Address (Port Numbers)
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Addresses in TCP/IP
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Port Numbers TCP and the upper layers dont use MAC and IP addresses to understand the sending hosts address as the Data Link and Network layer protocols do. Instead, they use port numbers. TCP and UDP must use port numbers to communicate with the upper layers because theyre what keep track of different applications' conversations crossing the network simultaneously. Originating source port numbers are dynamically assigned by the operating system of the source host and will equal some number starting at 1024.
These port numbers identify the source and destination application or process in the TCP segment.
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Port Numbers (Continued) The port numbers are divided into three ranges: Well Known Ports Registered Ports Dynamic or Private Ports
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Well Known Ports (01023) The port numbers in the range from 0 to 1023 are the wellknown ports. They are used by system processes that provide widely-used types of network services. Registered Ports (102449151) The ranges of port number from 1024 to 49151 are the registered ports. They are assigned by IANA for specific service upon application by a requesting entity. Dynamic or Private Ports (4915265535) The range above the registered ports contains dynamic or private ports that cannot be registered with IANA. It is used for custom or temporary purposes and for automatic allocation by operating system.
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Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
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Example 1
In Figure 2.18 a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At the data link level this frame contains physical (link) addresses in the header. These are the only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other information needed at this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits needed for error detection. See Next Slide
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Figure 2.18 Physical addresses
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Example 2
Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6 bytes) physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits, with every 2 bytes separated by a colon as shown below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
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Example 3
In Figure 2.19 we want to send data from a node with network address A and physical address 10, located on one LAN, to a node with a network address P and physical address 95, located on another LAN. Because the two devices are located on different networks, we cannot use link addresses only; the link addresses have only local jurisdiction. What we need here are universal addresses that can pass through the LAN boundaries. The network (logical) addresses have this characteristic.
See Next Slide

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Example 3 (Continued)
The packet at the network layer contains the logical addresses, which remain the same from the original source to the final destination (A and P, respectively, in the figure). They will not change when we go from network to network. However, the physical addresses will change as the packet moves from one network to another. The boxes labeled routers are internetworking devices, which we will discuss later.
See Next Slide

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Figure 2.19 IP addresses
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Example 5
Figure 2.20 shows an example of transport layer communication. Data coming from the upper layers have port addresses j and k ( j is the address of the sending process, and k is the address of the receiving process). Since the data size is larger than the network layer can handle, the data are split into two packets, each packet retaining the service-point addresses ( j and k). Then in the network layer, network addresses (A and P) are added to each packet. See Next Slide
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Example 5 (Continued)
The packets can travel on different paths and arrive at the destination either in order or out of order. The two packets are delivered to the destination transport layer, which is responsible for removing the network layer headers and combining the two pieces of data for delivery to the upper layers.
See Next Slide

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Figure 2.20 Port addresses
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Well Known Port Numbers
Port No 20 21 22 23 25 43 53 67 68 69 TCP UDP Protocol / Application FTP FTP Secure Shell (SSH) TELNET SMTP WHOIS DNS DHCP DHCP TFTP Comment Data Transfer Control Commands Secure Remote Login Remote Login Sending Mails Search WHOIS Database Resolves Domain Names Server Client Insecure File Transfer
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Well Known Port Numbers (Continued)
Port No 80 88 110 123 137 138 139 TCP UDP Protocol / Application HTTP Kerberos POP3 Network Time Protocol NetBIOS Name Service NetBIOS Datagram Service NetBIOS Session Service Comment Retrieving Web Pages Authentication Receiving Mails Synchronize Time Resolves NetBIOS Names
143
161
Internet Message Access Protocol

Simple Network Management Protocol
Retrieving Mails
Network Mgt.
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Port No 179 389 443 445 TCP UDP Protocol / Application BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) Lightweight Directory Access Protocol HTTPS Windows SMB File Sharing Service Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP) Syslog Comment Routing Protocol for ISPs Directory Services HTTP Secure File Sharing in Windows Used in IPSec VPNs
500
514
Sending Log Messages
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Port No 520 546 547 860 TCP UDP Protocol / Application Routing Information Protocol (RIP) DHCPv6 client DHCPv6 server iSCSI Comment Routing Protocol for Small Networks For IPv6 Addressing For IPv6 Addressing For Accessing Storage over the networks
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Registered Ports
Port No TCP UDP Protocol / Application Comment
1293
1503 68916900 6901 1645
IPSec (Internet Protocol Security)

Windows Live Messenger Windows Live Messenger Windows Live Messenger RADIUS Authentication Protocol RADIUS Accounting Protocol
Encrypting IP Packets
Chat Messenger File Transfer Voice Calls Default Port for Cisco and Juniper Networks RADIUS servers Default for Cisco and Juniper Networks RADIUS servers
1646
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Registered Ports (Continued)
Port No 1755 1812 1813 TCP UDP Protocol / Application Microsoft Media Services RADIUS Authentication Protocol RADIUS Accounting Protocol Network File System Microsoft Terminal Server Teredo Tunnelling Yahoo! Messenger Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) Comment Media Services Microsoft Implementation Microsoft Implementation Available in Linux Remote Desktop Protocol IPv4 To IPv6 Tunnelling Chat Messenger Used in Cisco VOIP
2049 3389 3544 5050 5060
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Registered Ports (Continued)
Port No 5355 TCP UDP Protocol / Application LLMNR (Link-Local Multicast Name Resolution) Comment Allows hosts to perform name resolution for hosts on the same local link (only provided by Windows Vista and Server 2008)
7777
19294, 19295, 19302
Windows Backdoor Program tini.exe

Google Talk Voice and Video connections
Trojan Horse
Chat Messenger
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Socket The combination of IP address and port number. e.g. 201.0.0.1:80
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Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast Unicast: These are sent to a single destination host.
Multicast: These are packets sent from a single source host and transmitted to many devices on different networks.
Broadcast (layer 2): These are sent to all hosts on a LAN.
Broadcasts (layer 3): These are sent to all hosts on the network.
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Broadcast Domain A broadcast domain a logical division of a computer network, in which all nodes can reach each other by broadcast at the data link layer.
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ARP (Address Resolution Protocol ) In TCP/IP communications, a datagram (packet) on a local-area network must contain both a destination MAC address and a destination IP address. There needs to be a way to automatically map IP to MAC address.
ARP associates an IP address with its MAC address. On a typical physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical or MAC address that is usually imprinted on the NIC. The TCP/IP suite has a protocol, called Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which can automatically obtain MAC addresses for local transmission.
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Address Resolution Protocol (Continued) Used by a sending host when it knows the IP address of the destination but needs the MAC address.
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ARP operation
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Address Resolution Protocol (Continued) Each device on a network maintains its own ARP table. A device that requires an IP and MAC address pair broadcasts an ARP request. If one of the local devices matches the IP address of the request, it sends back an ARP reply that contains its IP-MAC pair.
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Address Resolution Protocol (Continued) ARP is a broadcast protocol every host on the network receives the request. Each host checks the request against its IP address the right one responds.
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Note:
An ARP request is broadcast; an ARP reply is unicast.
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Four cases using ARP
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RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol) RARP finds the IP address for a machine that only knows its MAC address.
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ARP and RARP
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ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) ICMP is a network protocol used for reporting errors that might have occurred while transferring data packets over networks. ICMP is designed for network diagnosis and to find out as to what went wrong in the data communication. ICMP can be used to report: errors in the underlying communications of network applications. availability of remote hosts. Best known example of ICMP in practice is the ping utility, that uses ICMP protocol.
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ICMP In Action
When Host A sends a packet destined for Host B, the Lab_B router will send an ICMP destination unreachable message back to the sending device (Host A in this example).
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Application Layer Protocols HTTP FTP TFTP TELNET SSH DNS SMTP POP IMAP
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HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol ) Web servers implement this protocol. The underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web. HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted, and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands. For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.
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FTP (File Transfer Protocol) FTP protocol is used for downloading and uploading files over the Internet. FTP works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web pages from a server to a user's browser. FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g. uploading a document file to a server).
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TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) It can do nothing but send and receive files. TFTP has no directory-browsing abilities. Theres no authentication as with FTP, so its insecure.
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TELNET It allows a user to remotely access the resources of another system on the network. Telnet is a text-mode type program. Telnet is not secure.
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SSH (Secure Shell) SSH is a network protocol that allows you to remotely access the resources of another system on the network. Allows data to be exchanged using a secure channel between two networked devices. SSH was designed as a replacement for Telnet which send information, notably passwords, in plaintext, rendering them susceptible to packet analysis. The encryption used by SSH is intended to provide confidentiality and integrity of data over an unsecured network, such as the Internet.
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DNS (Domain Name Service) A Domain Name Server (DNS) lookup is the conversion of a domain name into its respective IP address. Domain names are alphabetic, they're easier to remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses, Every time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must translate the name into the corresponding IP address.
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DNS (Continued) For example, the domain name www.example.com might translate to 198.105.232.4. If one DNS server doesn't know how to translate a particular domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct IP address is returned.
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Domain name space
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Domain names and labels
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FQDN
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Hierarchy of name servers
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DNS In The Internet The domain name space (tree) is divided into two different sections: Generic domains Country domains
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DNS used in the Internet
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Generic domains
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Generic Domain Labels
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Generic Domain Labels (Continued)
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Country Domains
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Example 3
In Linux and Windows, the nslookup utility can be used to retrieve address/name mapping. The following shows how we can retrieve an address when the domain name is given. $ nslookup india.com
Name: india.com Address: 153.18.8.1
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Note: DNS can use the services of UDP or TCP using the well-known port 53.
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The Hosts File
Every operating system has a hosts file.

The hosts file stores information on where to find or locate a particular computer on the network.
It basically maps hostnames or domain names to IP addresses.

One can think of it as the local system version of the Domain Name System (DNS).
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The Hosts File (Continued)
Depending upon your operating system, the hosts file can be found at different locations:
Microsoft Windows Unix & Linux \windows\system32\drivers\etc \etc
The hosts file can be tweaked to carry out a number of interesting things: Block certain websites. Redirecting the user to an embarrassing website each time he enters the address of a regular website.
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SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) SMTP is used for sending email messages.
Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to send messages from one server to another; the messages can then be retrieved with an e-mail client using either POP or IMAP. In addition, SMTP is generally used to send messages from a mail client to a mail server. This is why you need to specify both the POP or IMAP server and the SMTP server when you configure your e-mail application.
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Note: Some examples of GUI-based user agents are Outlook Express, and Thunderbird.
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Email address
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SMTP range
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POP (Post Office Protocol Version 3) POP3 protocol is used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server. Most e-mail applications (sometimes called an e-mail client) use the POP3 protocol, although some can use the newer IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol).
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IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) A protocol for retrieving e-mail messages. IMAP was developed at Stanford University in 1986.
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LAN Technologies
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LAN Technologies Ethernet Token Ring FDDI
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Ethernet Ethernet is a contention media access method that allows all hosts on a network to share the same bandwidth of a link. Ethernet is popular because its scalable, meaning that its comparatively easy to integrate new technologies, such as Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, into an existing network infrastructure. Ethernet uses both Data Link and Physical layer specifications.
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Ethernet layers
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Ethernet frame
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Ethernet Frame Format
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Collision In a half duplex Ethernet network, a collision is the result of two devices on the same Ethernet network attempting to transmit data at exactly the same time. The network detects the "collision" of the two transmitted packets and discards them both.
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Collision Domain A collision domain is a physical network segment where data packets can collide with one another when being sent on a shared medium, in particular, when using the Ethernet networking protocol.
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Ethernet Operation
Collision
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
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Ethernet Communication Ethernet networking uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD). CSMA/CD is a protocol that helps devices share the bandwidth evenly without having two devices transmit at the same time on the network medium.
CSMA/CD was created to overcome the problem of those collisions that occur when packets are transmitted simultaneously from different devices.
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How does the CSMA/CD Protocols works?
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Ethernet Communication Steps
1.
The device will first listen to the media to determine is someone transmitting. If no device is transmitting, the it can start transmitting. While transmitting, the device will continue listening for other devices trying to transmit. If it detects another device transmitting, it will signal a COLLISION. If a collision occurs both devices will stop transmitting, wait a random amount of time and start back a step 1
2. 3.
4.
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CSMA/CD The previous steps define the protocol used by Ethernet called CSMA/CD. Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect Carrier Sense The device must check the media to see if its free. Multiple Access More than one device is attached to the network. Collision detect The ability to detect and respond to collisions.
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Ethernet : CSMA/CD (Continued)
CSMA/CD Process
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Effects of Collisions The following are the effects of having a CSMA/CD network sustaining heavy collisions: Delay Low throughput Congestion The best remedy for collisions is to upgrade to a full duplex switched environment.
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High Speed Ethernet Options
Ethernet (10 MBPS) Fast Ethernet (100 MBPS) Gigabit Ethernet (1000 MBPS)
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What is Fast Ether Channel?
Grouping of multiple Fast Ethernet interfaces into one logical transmission path
800 Mb
Scalable bandwidth up to 800+ Mbps

800 Mb
Using industry-standard Fast Ethernet Load balancing across parallel links Extendable to Gigabit Ethernet
600 Mb
400 Mb
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What is Gigabit Ethernet? 1000-Mbps data rate 802.3/Ethernet frames Full duplex or half duplex Fiber or copper media 100% compatible with existing: Network protocols Network operating systems
20% 80% Backbone
20%
Network applications
Network management
80% Workgroup
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What is PoE (Power Over Ethernet) ?
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Token Ring LAN Technology developed by IBM. Token Ring uses a ring topology. However, the devices are connected in a star configuration with a MAU (Media Access Unit), not a hub, being in the center.
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FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) FDDI uses fiber optic cables. Because of the cost, FDDI is usually used to connect LANs together and not devices.
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FDDI (Continued) FDDI is sometimes called Dual-Counter Rotating Rings.
There are two pieces of fiber that carry data in opposite directions.
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FDDI (Continued) One ring is called the Primary and the other is Secondary.
Most data gets transmitted on the primary ring.

The secondary ring is usually reserved for system maintenance and if there is a failure of the primary ring. If one ring breaks, any device can switch data from one ring to the other.
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Networking Devices
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Network Devices LANs or WANs do not normally operate in isolation. They are connected to one another or to the Internet. To connect LANs or WANs, we use network connecting devices. Network devices can operate in different layers of the Internet model. Any network requires hardware components that make up the network so that the nodes within it can communicate with each other and exchange information.
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Network Devices (Continued)
The hardware components used in a network include the following devices:

Repeaters Hubs Bridges Switches Routers CSU/DSU
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Network Device Function at Layers
7 6 5 4 3 2
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link
NIC Card
Physical
Hub
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Network Device Function at Layers (Continued)
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Layer 1 Network Devices The contents of the frame have no meaning at Layer 1. Layer 1 devices cannot process any of the data in the frame. Since a layer 1 device cannot read either the MAC (layer 2) address or the network (layer 3) address they cannot make any decisions about where frames should be forwarded (or sent).
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Repeater Repeaters amplify and regenerate the signal from one node to another in a network.
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Repeater
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Note:
A repeater connects segments of a LAN.
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Note:
A repeater forwards every bit; it has no filtering capability.
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Note:
A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
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Function of a repeater
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Hub A hub is a device that receives a signal on one port and retransmits it on one or more other ports. Hubs can be used to extend the distance that a signal travels. In the process of retransmitting the signal, the signal is reconditioned. Hubs used at the center of a star topology.
Network Setup Using a Hub
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Hub In Action
Hub Signal at its limit due to attenuation Signal strength restored
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Hub In Action (Continued)
Hub
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Hub (Continued)
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Hub In Star Topology
Hub
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Network Sniffing In Hub Networks Assume you want to intercept the frames carrying passwords on the network below. A user is entering their password at Node A on the network. Where should you connect to the network?
Hub
Node A
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Ethernet Collision Domains
2. Just before the frame arrives at node B, node B begins transmitting a frame.
1. Node A begins transmitting a frame.
Collision Voltage Suge

3. The collision results in a voltage surge as the two transmission interfere with one another. The voltage surge must arrive before node A finishes transmitting its frame.
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Bridge Bridges are devices to connect network segments to each other.
The following figure depicts the use of bridges in management of network traffic.
Network Setup Using a Bridge
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Bridge
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Note:
A bridge has a table used for filtering decisions.
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Note:
A bridge does not change the physical (MAC) addresses in a frame.
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Learning bridge
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Switches Switches are intelligent network devices that provide universal connectivity. Switch can create multiple, simultaneous virtual connections between nodes. This allows each node to have a dedicated connection to the network instead of a shared connection. Can operate at layer 2, 3, or 4 of OSI model.
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Switches Switches are multiport bridges. Each port on switch is a separate collision domain. Each connected device effectively receives own dedicated channel.
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Switches (Continued)
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Hub In Star Topology
Collision
Repeater
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Switch In Star Topology
Switch
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A switch on a small network
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Switched Ethernet Network
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Components of Switch Ports
Ports on a single switch can have different speeds or use different media.
Frame buffers
Frames may be stored temporarily for various reasons in memory called frame buffers.
Backplane bus
The circuitry that connects line cards and ports.
Switching Fabric
Transfers data from port to port.
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Switch Operation
Backplane
Ports
Stored in Frame Buffer
Two frames arrive simultaneously on different ports

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Functions of Switch Address Learning
Switches examine the source MAC address of each frame and build a MAC address table (CAM) so they can forward frames correctly.
Frame Forwarding / Filtering

When a frame arrives, the switch looks up its destination MAC address in the CAM table to determine what to do with it.
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Address Learning
MAC Address Table (CAM) Address Port Ports 1 2 3 4 AB AF 1 4
Source: AB Destination: FC Source: AF Destination: AB
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Frame Forwarding Decision Broadcast
Forwarded out every port except the one it arrived on. Acts like a layer 1 repeater.
Unicast
If the destination address is in the CAM then. If the address is on a different port than the one the frame arrived on, the frame is forwarded out the correct port. If the destination address is not in the CAM then the frame is treated like a broadcast.
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Frame Forwarding Decision (Continued)
Broadcast Frame?
Yes
Forward to all ports No
No
Look up Destination MAC Address
Forward Frame to Destination Port No

Destination and Source Port Same?
Address Found?
Yes
Yes Filter Frame

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Switch Forwarding Frames
MAC Address Table (CAM) Address Port Ports 1 2 3 4 AB AF AC 1 4 2
Source: AC Destination: FC Source: AF Destination: AB
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Server In Shared LAN
Most of the traffic in client/server networks is directed at servers or to Internet connections.
Server
Repeater
In a shared media LAN only one client can access the server at a time.
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Server In Switched LAN
Replacing the repeater with a switch doesnt necessarily help by itself since most of the traffic is still going over the link to the server
Server
Switch
However by replacing the link to the server with a higher speed architecture, LAN throughput increases.
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Full Duplex Ethernet Switches allow connections to be full-duplex.
Each individual port can be configured independently.
Full-duplex operation allows communication in both directions simultaneously.

CSMA/CD is no longer relevant in full-duplex operation.
A full-duplex Fast Ethernet connection has a total potential throughput of 200 Mbps.
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Full Duplex Ethernet (Continued)
Full-Duplex Ethernet can be used in three situations:

With a connection from a switch to a host. With a connection from a switch to a switch. With a connection from a host to a host using a crossover cable.
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Full Duplex Ethernet (Continued)
Lastly, remember these three important points:

There are no collisions in full-duplex mode. A dedicated switch port is required for each full-duplex node. The host network card and the switch port must be capable of operating in full-duplex mode.
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Routers Routers are layer 3 network devices that provide connectivity between WANs and LANs, between networks with different topologies, or between networks using different network standards. The following figure depicts a network setup with routers:
Network Setup Using a Router
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Routers (Continued) A router is a layer 3 device that provides these functions:
Packet Switching Best Path Determination Packet Filtering Internetwork Communications
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Note:
A router is a three-layer (physical, data link, and network) device.
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Note:
A repeater or a bridge connects segments of a LAN & A router connects independent LANs or WANs to create an internetwork (internet).
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Note:
A router changes the physical addresses in a packet.
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CSU / DSU The Channel Service Unit / Digital Service Unit (CSU/DSU) is a hardware device that connects a leased line to a users hardware device.
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CSU / DSU (Continued)
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Integrated CSU / DSU In Cisco Routers
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Identifying Collision Domains and Broadcast Domains
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IP Addressing: Classful Addressing
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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) Every system connected to a network has a unique IP address associated with itself. An IP address acts as the unique identity of a computer at which it can be contacted. If I want to connect to your computer, then I need to know your computers IP address. All data sent or received by a system will be addressed from or to its IP address.
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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued) An IP address is to your computer what your mobile number is to you in the real world An identity at which you can be contacted. An hackers first step is to find out the IP address of the target system. An IP address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the connection of a host or a router to the Internet.
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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued) Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address.
They are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and only one, connection to the Internet.
IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to address a package and drop it in the system, but there's no direct link between you and the recipient. TCP/IP, on the other hand, establishes a connection between two hosts so that they can send messages back and forth for a period of time.
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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued) This address allows nodes to connect and communicate over a network, as shown in the following figure:
Nodes on a Network with their Respective IP Addresses
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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued) Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages, distributes, and ensures that every node on the Internet has a unique IP address. With the phenomenal growth of the Internet, it has been virtually impossible for IANA to manage IP address allocation. As a result, the IP address allocation has been divided into sub registries, known as Regional Internet Registries (RIR), for various geographical regions. RIRs include:
Asia-Pacific Network Information Center (APNIC) American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) Latin American and Caribbean IP Network Information Center (LACNIC) Reseaux IP Europeans (RIPE)
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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued) Depending on the region, an Internet Service Provider (ISP) must obtain the required IP address block from the registry that controls IP address allocation in its region. An IP address is divided into four groups, which are separated by dots ("."). These groups are commonly known as octets. Each octet constitutes 8 bits, where each bit can either have a binary value of 1 or 0, as shown in the following figure.
32-bit Structure of an IP Address
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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued) To make the IP address easier to use, the address is usually written as four decimal numbers separated by periods. This way of writing the address is called the dotted decimal format.
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IPv4 Address
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Note: An IP address is a 32-bit address.
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Note: The IP addresses are unique.
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Classes of IPv4 Address
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Classes of IPv4 Address (Continued)
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Note: The address space of IPv4 is 232 or 4,294,967,296.
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Dotted-decimal notation
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Example 1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111 c. 11100111 11011011 10001011 01101111 d. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111
Solution We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239 c. 231.219.139.111
b. 193.131.27.255 d. 249.155.251.15
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Example 2
Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation. a. 111.56.45.78 c. 241.8.56.12 Solution We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent: b. 221.34.7.82 d. 75.45.34.78
a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110 b. 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010 c. 11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100 d. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110
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Example 3
Find the error, if any, in the following IP addresses: a. 111.56.045.78 b. 221.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.301.14
d. 11100010.23.14.67
Solution
a. There are no leading zeroes in dotted-decimal notation (045). b. We may not have more than four numbers in an IP address. c. In dotted-decimal notation, each number is less than or equal to 255; 301 is outside this range. d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not allowed.
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Example 4
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to hexadecimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111 Solution We replace each group of 4 bits with its hexadecimal equivalent (see Appendix B). Note that hexadecimal notation normally has no added spaces or dots; however, 0X (or 0x) is added at the beginning or the subscript 16 at the end to show that the number is in hexadecimal. a. 0X810B0BEF or 810B0BEF16 b. 0XC1831BFF or C1831BFF16
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Classful IP Addressing IP addresses, when started a few decades ago, used the concept of classes. This architecture is called Classful addressing. In the mid-1990s, a new architecture, called classless addressing, was introduced and will eventually supersede the original architecture.
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Occupation of the address space
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Addresses per class
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Figure 4.3 Finding the address class in binary notation
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Figure 4.4 Finding the address class in binary notation (Continued)
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Example 5
How can we prove that we have 2,147,483,648 addresses in class A?
Solution In class A, only 1 bit defines the class. The remaining 31 bits are available for the address. With 31 bits, we can have 231 or 2,147,483,648 addresses.
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Example 6
Find the class of each address: a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111 c. 10100111 11011011 10001011 01101111 d. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111 Solution See the procedure in Figure 4.4. a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address. b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address. c. The first bit is 0; the second bit is 1. This is a class B address. d. The first 4 bits are 1s. This is a class E address..
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Finding the class in decimal notation
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Example 7
Find the class of each address:
a. 227.12.14.87 d. 252.5.15.111 b.193.14.56.22 e.134.11.78.56 c.14.23.120.8
Solution a. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D. b. The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is C. c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A. d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E. e. The first byte is 134 (between 128 and 191); the class is B.
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Example 8
In Example 5 we showed that class A has 231 (2,147,483,648) addresses. How can we prove this same fact using dotteddecimal notation? Solution The addresses in class A range from 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255. We need to show that the difference between these two numbers is 2,147,483,648. This is a good exercise because it shows us how to define the range of addresses between two addresses. We notice that we are dealing with base 256 numbers here. Each byte in the notation has a weight. The weights are as follows (see Appendix B):
See Next Slide

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Example 8 (continued)
2563, 2562, 2561, 2560 Now to find the integer value of each number, we multiply each byte by its weight: Last address: 127 2563 + 255 2562 + 255 2561 + 255 2560 = 2,147,483,647 First address: = 0 If we subtract the first from the last and add 1 to the result (remember we always add 1 to get the range), we get 2,147,483,648 or 231.
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Figure 4.6 Netid and hostid
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Note:
Millions of class A addresses are wasted.
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Figure 4.7 Blocks in class A
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Figure 4.8 Blocks in class B
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Note: Many class B addresses are wasted.
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Figure 4.9 Blocks in class C
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Note: The number of addresses in class C is smaller than the needs of most organizations.
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Note: Class D addresses are used for multicasting; there is only one block in this class.
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Note: Class E addresses are reserved for future purposes; most of the block is wasted.
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Note: In classful addressing, the network address (the first address in the block) is the one that is assigned to the organization. The range of addresses can automatically be inferred from the network address.
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Example 9
Given the network address 17.0.0.0, find the class, the block, and the range of the addresses.
Solution The class is A because the first byte is between 0 and 127. The block has a netid of 17. The addresses range from 17.0.0.0 to 17.255.255.255.
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Example 10
Solution The class is B because the first byte is between 128 and 191. The block has a netid of 132.21. The addresses range from 132.21.0.0 to 132.21.255.255.
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Example 11
Solution The class is C because the first byte is between 192 and 223. The block has a netid of 220.34.76. The addresses range from 220.34.76.0 to 220.34.76.255.
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Default masks
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Note: The network address is the beginning address of each block. It can be found by applying the default mask to any of the addresses in the block (including itself). It retains the netid of the block and sets the hostid to zero.
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Example 12
Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the beginning address (network address).
Solution The default mask is 255.0.0.0, which means that only the first byte is preserved and the other 3 bytes are set to 0s. The network address is 23.0.0.0.
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Example 13
Solution The default mask is 255.255.0.0, which means that the first 2 bytes are preserved and the other 2 bytes are set to 0s. The network address is 132.6.0.0.
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Example 14
Solution The default mask is 255.255.255.0, which means that the first 3 bytes are preserved and the last byte is set to 0. The network address is 201.180.56.0.
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Note:
Note that we must not apply the default mask of one class to an address belonging to another class.
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Special addresses
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Reserved IP Addresses Certain host addresses are reserved and cannot be assigned to devices on a network. An IP address that has binary 0s in all host bit positions is reserved for the network address. An IP address that has binary 1s in all host bit positions is reserved for the network address.
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Figure 4.13 Network address
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Figure 4.14 Example of direct broadcast address
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Figure 4.15 Example of limited broadcast address
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Figure 4.16 Examples of this host on this network
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Figure 4.17 Example of specific host on this network
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Figure 4.18 Example of loopback address
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Public Vs Private IP Addresses No two machines that connect to a public network can have the same IP address because public IP addresses are global and standardized. However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet may use any IP addresses, as long as each host within the private network is unique. Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet requires translation of the private addresses to public addresses using Network Address Translation (NAT).
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Private IP Address Range
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What is Subnet? A sub network or a subnet is a logical division of a large network into smaller networks, as shown in the following figure:
Subnets on a Network
Creation of subnets enables better management of the network and optimum utilization of networks capabilities. These are attributed to the following reasons:
Reduced network traffic Enhanced network management Improved network connectivity over a large geographical area
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Addresses in a network with and without Subnetting
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Hierarchy concept in a telephone number
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Default mask and subnet mask
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Example 15
What is the sub network address if the destination address is 200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0? Solution We apply the AND operation on the address and the subnet mask.
Address Subnet Mask
11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
Subnetwork Address 11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000.
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Figure 4.25 Comparison of a default mask and a subnet mask
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Note:
In subnetting, we need the first address of the subnet and the subnet mask to define the range of addresses.
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TCP/IP Network Utilities
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TCP/IP Network Utilities TCP/IP comes with complete set of utilities that can help to track down most TCP/IP-related problems. For example: Ping, Netstat, Tracert Nearly all TCP/IP utilities can be accessed from command prompt on any type of server or client running TCP/IP. Command Syntax and options may differ depending on OS.
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Ping Ping is a computer network administration utility used to test the reachability of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network. Ping operates by sending Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) echo request packets to the target host and waiting for an ICMP echo response. In the process it measures the time from transmission to reception (round-trip time) and records any packet loss.
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Netstat Displays TCP/IP statistics and details about TCP/IP components and connections on a host:
Port on which a particular TCP/IP service is running Network connections currently established Number of packets handled by network interface since activation Number of data errors
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Traceroute (Tracert) When data packets travel from source to destination system, then they dont always take the same path. Data packets sent between the two systems may take different paths. Traceroute is a tool that allows you to trace the path between two systems. It was designed for network troubleshooting purposes.
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Traceroute (Tracert) (Continued) The Time to Live (TTL) value of a data packet represents its maximum possible age. Originally TTL values were introduced to ensure that data packets dont end up in infinite loop. It defines the maximum number of routers through which the data packet can travel before it is declared dead and dropped. Each router reduces the TTL value of the packet by 1 hence; it has now become a Hop Counter.
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Traceroute (Tracert) (Continued) Uses ICMP to trace path from one node to another
Identifies all intermediate hops Useful for determining router and connectivity problems.
Trace route may stop before completing

Device problem on path Device does not accept ICMP transmissions Often indicates firewall
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WHOIS The whois database is a worldwide database maintained by various domain registration companies across the globe containing listings of the domains registered at their company or country. The whois query searches this database to gather useful information on both domain names and IP addresses.
WHOIS Query Websites:

www.allwhois.com www.networksolutions.com www.internic.com www.net4domains.com www.samspade.org
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The Bus Topology

A Terminated Bus Topology

The Star Topology

A Typical Star Topology Network

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The Ring Topology

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A Typical Ring Topology Network

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The Mesh Topology

The Cellular Topology

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The Peer-to-Peer Network

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Resource sharing on a Simple Peer-to-Peer Network

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The Client / Server Network

The Client-Server Network Setup

Resource sharing on a Client / Server Network

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Network Operating Systems

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Typical LAN Setup

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The WAN Connectivity

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Bandwidth represents the capacity of the connection.

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Coaxial Cables Twisted Pair Cables Fiber-optic Cables

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Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)

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