Cytology,

the study of the structure and function of cells

The human body contains both somatic and sex cells

Histology is the science that

studies the microscopic structure of normal tissues.

The cell theory states:

Cells

are the building blocks of all plants and animals Cells are produced by the division of preexisting cells Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level
Homeostasis

at higher levels reflects combined, coordinated action of many cells

The Diversity of Cells in the Human Body

Figure 3.1

A. Nucleus (regulatory center of the cell)

General Subdivisions of a Cell

B. Cell Membrane (selectively permeable boundary between the cell and the environment)
Organelles are individual compartments in the cytoplasm

C. Cytoplasm (everything between the cell membrane and the nuclear compartment)

Cell membrane components phospholipid bilayer transmembrane (integral) and peripheral proteins interior protein network elements of the cytoskeleton cell surface markers glycocalyx (proteoglycans, glycolipids, glycoproteins)

Cell Membrane

Fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure

Plasma or Cell Membrane

OUTSIDE LIPID BILAYER

INSIDE

Fluid Mosaic Model of Membrane Structure

Membrane Proteins Outer Surface

Cholesterol Cytoplasm

Functions of the cell membrane

Selectively

isolates the cells contents from the external environment and serves as a barrier the exchange of substances between the inside and outside of the cell transport function function

Regulate

Receptor

The phospholipid bilayer is the fluid portion of the membrane

Double

layer Polar head group: hydrophilic exterior Non-polar hydrocarbon tails: hydrophobic interior

Cholesterol molecules are part of the lipid bilayer

Adds

strength Adds flexibility Affects fluidity

Membrane proteins:
Classified by position:
Integral

Classified by function: Anchoring proteins Recognition proteins Receptor proteins Carrier proteins Channels

proteins Peripheral proteins

Membrane proteins

Integral and peripheral proteins

 Transport
For

Types of membrane proteins functional classification

proteins
passage of materials through the plasma membrane
Channel

vs. carrier proteins

Receptor
Bind

proteins
hormones

molecules and trigger cellular responses

Example:

Recognition
Self

proteins

vs. non-self (glycoprotein-based) recognition Markers during development

2. Movement of substances across membranes

Definitions
Concentration
Number

of molecules in a given volume in concentration between two regions of

Gradient
Differences

space.

This

causes molecules to move from one region to the other (if no barrier to movement)

Diffusion
Net

movement of molecules from regions of high concentration to regions of low concentration

Considered

as movement down its concentration gradient

Diffusion of Dye in Water

Dispersing

Random Dispersal

Steep Concentration Gradient

Time 0

Reduced Concentration Gradient

Time 1

No Concentration Gradient

Time 2

Passive and active transport

Passive

transport

Movement

of molecules down their concentration gradients Requires no net energy expenditure

The

gradients themselves provide energy

Active

transport

Movement

of molecules against their concentration gradients Requires energy!

Passive transport
1. 2. 3. 4.

Simple diffusion Facilitated diffusion Osmosis Filtration

Remember that no energy is required, and molecules move down their concentration gradients

Passive transport
1.

Simple diffusion

Molecules simply cross cell membrane on their own, down their concentration gradients Possible only for molecules that can cross the lipid bilayer on their own

Lipid-soluble molecules

Examples: ethyl alcohol, vitamin A, steroid hormones Examples: water, carbon dioxide

Very small molecules

Rate depends upon

Concentration gradient Size Lipid solubility

Passive transport
2.

Facilitated diffusion

Molecules move down their concentration gradients (as for simple diffusion), but Transport proteins assist these molecules in crossing the membrane No net energy expenditure! (This is a type of diffusion)

Example: transport of glucose

Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a channel

Passive transport:
Facilitated diffusion via a carrier protein
(Outside Cell) Diffusion Channel Protein Molecule in Transit

Diffusion Gradient
Carrier protein has binding site for molecule

Molecule enters binding site

Carrier protein changes shape, transporting molecule across membrane

Carrier protein resumes original shape

(Inside Cell)

Facilitated Facilitated diffusion diffusion is is passive passive diffusion diffusion with with the the help help of of transport transport proteins proteins

Passive transport
3.

Osmosis

Movement of water from a high [water] to an area of low [water] concentration across a semipermeable membrane

Note here that water can pass through, but glucose cannot

The effects of osmosis

Compare

solute and water concentrations outside vs. inside the cell (sketches)

H2O

H2O

Active Transport
1.

Movement via active transport proteins (sodium-potassium pump)

Remember that energy is required, and molecules are moved against their concentration gradients

Bulk (vesicular) transport

Exocytosis - movement of materials out of the cell by fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane

Example - export or removal of wastes in single-celled organisms Example cells exporting proteins Pinocytosis, "cell drinking" extra cellular fluid and materials suspended in it (water and solutes) are enclosed in invaginating vesicle

Endocytosis Infolding of the plasma membrane to bring large materials into the cell

Used in digestive tract The way insulin gets into your cells.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis more specific with receptor binding to molecules, bringing them in and concentrating into a coated pit

Phagocytosis "cell eating" brings large materials into a cell by wrapping extensions of the plasma membrane around the materials and fusing the extension together.

How the human immune system ingests whole bacteria or one-celled creatures eat pseudopodia false feet plasma membrane extensions

Bulk (vesicular) transport

1. Endocytosis
Three

types of endocytosis

Pinocytosis
cell

drinking Extracellular fluid taken in

Receptor-mediated
Specific

endocytosis

for particular molecules Molecules bind to receptors. Receptor-molecule complex taken in

Phagocytosis
Large

particles engulfed

Mmm...yummy bacteria!!

Help! Im to be broken down to mere macromolecules!!

Bulk (vesicular) transport

2. Exocytosis

3. Transcytosis

Transcytosis in endothelial cells of the capillary Can see this phenomena in continuous capillaries
Muscle, connective tissue, exocrine glands and nervous tissue

Transport macromolecules in both directions. Pinocytotic vesicles can cross cell in about 2-3 minutes.

lumen

Tight Junctions
Seal

tissues and prevent leaks Link epithelial cells together Prevent things from moving through the intercellular space Restrict migration of proteins and phospholipids

Tight junctions
Extracellular

surfaces of two adjacent plasma membranes are joined together so there is no extracellular space between them Occurs in a band around the entire cell

Belt desmosome
Zonula

adherens Another belt around the cell Below the tight junctions An anchorage junction Associated with actin filaments Space between membranes can be seen

Desmosomes
Like

spot welds!

Dense

plaques with fibers attachedAnchor cells together from one side to the other. cells withstand lots of abuse!

These

Spot Desmosomes
A

region between two cells where membranes are separated by 20nm Dense accumulation of protein at the cytoplasmic surface of the membrane

Desmosomes, contd
Keratin

fibers extend from the cytoplasmic surface to other side of cell to next desmosome Holds adjacent cells together in areas of stretching
skin,

cardiac muscle

Hemidesmosome
Assymetrical

structures A plate anchors the basal part of cell to the basal lamina This plate contains IFs called keratins or tonofilaments Membrane plaque linking hemidesmosome to basal lamina via anchoring filaments Contributes to overall stability of

Hemidesmosomes

Gap junctions
Protein

channels link the cytosols of

of small molecules and ions (Na+,

cells
Passage

K+) Excludes large molecules Transmits electrical activity between cardiac and smooth muscle cells Allows chemical messengers to cross from one cell to another

Gap junction connexons

A

connexon is a cylinder with a central open pore One gap junction connexon is made up of six connexins The pore is a hydrophilic channel between two cytoplasms Plasma membranes come within 2-4nm of each other

Gap junctions

Put Them All Together

Cellular Junctions
Occluding jxns

zonula adherens

macula adherens